Metabolic engineering for microbial production of terpenoid products

ABSTRACT

The invention relates to methods and bacterial strains for making terpene and terpenoid products, the bacterial strains having improved carbon pull through the MEP pathway and to a downstream recombinant synthesis pathway.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/450,707 filed Jan. 26, 2017, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Jan. 26, 2018, is named MAN-009PC_ST25 and is 125,103 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND

The food and beverage industries as well as other industries such as the perfume, cosmetic and health care industries routinely use terpenes and/or terpenoid products, including for use as flavors and fragrances. However, factors such as: (i) the availability and high price of the plant raw material; (ii) the relatively low terpene content in plant; and (iii) the tedious and inefficient extraction processes to produce sufficient quantities of terpene products on an industrial scale all have stimulated research on the biosynthesis of terpenes using plant-independent systems. Consequently, effort has been expended in developing technologies to engineer microorganisms for converting renewable resources such as glucose into terpenoid products. By comparison with traditional methods, microorganisms have the advantage of fast growth without the need for land to sustain development.

There are two major biosynthetic routes for the essential isoprenoid precursors isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), the mevalonate (MVA) pathway and the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway. The MVA pathway is found in most eukaryotes, archaea and a few eubacteria. The MEP pathway is found in eubacteria, the chloroplasts of plants, cyanobacteria, algae and apicomplexan parasites. E. coli and other Gram-negative bacteria utilize the MEP pathway to synthesize IPP and DMAPP metabolic precursors. While the MEP pathway provides a theoretically better stoichiometric yield over the MVA pathway, the MEP pathway in E. coli and in other bacteria has a variety of intrinsic regulation mechanisms that control and/or limit carbon flux through the pathway. See, Zhao et al., Methylerythritol Phosphate Pathway of Isoprenoid Biosynthesis, Annu Rev. Biochem. 2013; 82:497-530; Ajikumar P K, et al., Isoprenoid pathway optimization for Taxol precursor overproduction in Escherichia coli. Science 2010; 330-70-74.

Microbial strains and methods for improving carbon flux through the MEP pathway and through recombinant downstream terpene and terpenoid synthesis pathways are needed for industrial-scale production of terpenes and terpenoids in bacterial systems.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In various aspects, the invention relates to methods and bacterial strains for making terpene and terpenoid products. In certain aspects, the invention provides bacterial strains with improved carbon flux into the MEP pathway and to a downstream recombinant synthesis pathway, to thereby increase terpene and/or terpenoid production by fermentation with inexpensive carbon sources (e.g., glucose).

In some aspects, the invention relates to bacterial strains that overexpress IspG and IspH, so as to provide increased carbon flux to 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl 4-diphosphate (HMBPP) intermediate, but with balanced expression to prevent accumulation of HMBPP at an amount that reduces cell growth or viability, or at an amount that inhibits MEP pathway flux and/or terpenoid production. Increasing expression of both IspG and IspH significantly increases titers of terpene and terpenoid products. In contrast, overexpression of IspG alone results in growth defects, while overexpression of IspH alone does not significantly impact product titer. HMBPP metabolite can act as a regulator or inhibitor of the MEP pathway, and may be toxic to the bacterial cells at certain levels. For example, in some embodiments, HMBPP does not accumulate at more than about 10 mg/g dry cell weight (DCW), or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 5 mg/g of DCW, or at more than about 2 mg/g DCW. Thus, the balanced overexpression of IspG and IspH (e.g., favoring more IspH activity) is important to pull MEP carbon downstream through HMBPP to IPP while preventing its imbalance and accumulation.

In various embodiments, the bacterial strain overexpresses a balanced MEP pathway to move MEP carbon to the MEcPP intermediate, the substrate for IspG, and includes one or more genetic modifications to support the activities of IspG and IspH enzymes, which are Fe-sulfur cluster enzymes. Exemplary modifications include those that enhance the supply and transfer of electrons through the MEP pathway, and/or to terpene or terpenoid products. These include recombinant expression of one or more oxidoreductase enzymes, including oxidoreductases that oxidize pyruvate and/or lead to reduction of ferredoxin (which supplies electrons to the MEP pathway). An exemplary oxidoreductase is E. coli YdbK and orthologs and derivatives thereof.

In various embodiments, the microbial strain comprises an overexpression of or complementation with one or more of a flavodoxin (fldA), flavodoxin reductase, ferredoxin (fdx), and ferredoxin reductase.

In other aspects, the invention provides bacterial strains that overexpress PgpB or NudB, which dephosphorylate FPP to farnesol, and IPP and DMAPP to isoprenol and prenol, respectively. In these embodiments, the cell contains an additional product pull on the MEP pathway, while draining excess MEP carbon from the pathway outside the cell, and thereby avoiding intrinsic feedback inhibition mechanisms. Further, since these products accumulate outside the cell, they can be used to track carbon flux through the MEP pathway, even without a downstream terpenoid synthesis pathway installed. Thus, bacteria strains overexpressing PgpB and/or NudB are convenient tools for balancing the expression of MEP pathway genes. Additionally, or alternatively, in some embodiments, the bacterial strain overexpresses one or more strong synthases with sufficient product pull on the MEP pathway to avoid intrinsic feedback inhibition mechanisms. By way of example, in some embodiments, the synthase is Artemisia annua farnesene synthase.

For production of terpene or terpenoid product, the bacterial cell will contain a recombinant downstream pathway that produces the terpenoid from IPP and DMAPP precursors. In certain embodiments, the bacterial cell produces one or more terpenoid compounds, such as monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, and diterpenoids, among others. Such terpenoid compounds find use in perfumery (e.g. patchoulol), in the flavor industry (e.g., nootkatone), as sweeteners (e.g., steviol glycosides), as colorants, or as therapeutic agents (e.g., taxol).

The recovered terpene or terpenoid may be incorporated into a product (e.g., a consumer or industrial product). For example, the product may be a flavor product, a fragrance product, a sweetener, a cosmetic, a cleaning product, a detergent or soap, or a pest control product. The higher yields produced in embodiments of the invention can provide significant cost advantages as well as sustainability and quality control of the terpene or terpenoid ingredient.

Other aspects and embodiments of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a schematic for terpenoid production through the MEP pathway. A bacterial cell is represented, taking in glucose as a carbon source. Glucose is converted to biomass through the TCA cycle or funneled through the MEP pathway to the desired terpenoid products. Glucose comes into the cell and is converted to pyruvate (PYR) with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate as an intermediate (GAP). PYR and GAP are combined to make DOXP, which is converted to MEP and commits the pathway to FPP (going through MEcPP). DOX and ME are dephosphorylated products of DOXP and MEP, respectively. DOX, ME, and MEcPP are found outside the cell. The more flux that is forced into the MEP pathway, the more these products are found extracellularly. These side products can be used as markers of bottlenecks in the MEP pathway, and to identify targets for engineering. By overexpressing nudB or pgpB, IPP and DMAPP or FPP are dephosphorylated to prenol and isoprenol or farnesol, respectively, which accumulate outside the cell and can be used to alleviate intermediate accumulation and the activation of feedback inhibition of the MEP pathway. Black arrows show enzyme-mediated biochemical reactions towards terpenoids, light grey arrows show a competing side product, dark grey arrows show transport of a product outside of the cell, and white arrows show condensed pathways for simplicity.

FIG. 2 shows that increasing expression of ispH alone or ispH and ispG together improve terpenoid product titers in strains engineered to increase the amount of carbon entering the MEP pathway, but ispG alone decreases productivity. The control strain is an E. coli strain with additional copies of dxs, dxr, ispD, ispE, ispF, and idi (no additional copies of ispG or ispH), among other changes to improve MEP pathway flux. Strains include a 20 kb deletion, which was not engineered.

FIG. 3 shows that increasing ispG and/or ispH expression in modified production strains with enhanced MEP pathways impacts the MEP product distribution pattern. Upper panel (lx scale) shows all MEP pathway metabolites, with the majority of products being DOX, ME, and MEcPP. Middle panel (100× scale), shows MEP pathway metabolites with DOX, ME, and MEcPP not reported; in this case, DOXP and MEP are the most represented. Lower panel (25000× scale) shows only HMBPP concentration. In these panels, total extracellular and intracellular metabolites are shown from extracted cultures (broth plus cells), such that the reported concentration is relative to volume of extract.

FIG. 4 shows the proportion of each individual MEP metabolite found inside or outside the cell (‘Intra’ vs ‘Extra’). These values do not reflect absolute abundance, e.g. there is far more DOX in total than there is HMBPP. While DOX is 100% extracellular, HMBPP is 100% intracellular. The strain profiled in FIG. 4 is the ‘Control+ispH/ispG’ top performing strain. DOXP/DOX, MEP/ME, and MEcPP accumulate almost entirely, if not entirely, in the extracellular medium, while CDP-ME, CDP-MEP, HMBPP, IPP/DMAPP, and FPP are observed 100% intracellularly. The percentage of each metabolite found intracellularly is shown at the top of the graph.

FIG. 5 shows that uncompensated ispG upregulation causes a significant drop in cell growth, as determined by UV absorbance at 600 nm. While some changes to final cell density is observed in strains compensated with ispH or ispH and ispG together, the variation is not significant.

FIG. 6 shows that overexpression of pgpB can triple farnesol titers in strains engineered to enhance flux through MEP pathway, but without a downstream terpenoid product pathway installed. The control strain has additional copies of dxs, dxr, ispD, ispF, ispE, ispG, ispH, and idi under varying levels of constitutive expression, and also has ydbK overexpressed. The strain accumulates moderate amounts of farnesol, presumably as ‘spill-over’ from too much FPP accumulation, which feeds back on the pathway, and suffers from markedly slower growth compared to wild-type. When pgpB is overexpressed in this strain, the excess FPP is more efficiently converted to farnesol (preventing feedback control) and the flux is effectively pulled through the MEP pathway.

FIG. 7 shows that increasing and tuning expression of ispG′ and/or ispH in a strain that produces farnesol can improve product titer. The control strain has additional copies of dxs, dxr, ispD, ispF, ispE, ispG, ispH, and idi, as well as additional copies of ydbK and pgpB. Additional copies of ispH and/or ispG′ are integrated into the strains under increasing promoter strength (+, ++, +++).

FIG. 8 shows that increase in farnesol product titer (shown in FIG. 7) is accompanied by a decrease in MEcPP pool size, and depends on the ratio of ispG and ispH.

FIG. 9 shows that idi overexpression increases product titer in a strain that does not overexpress ispGH, and decreases titer in two strains that do overexpress ispGH, indicating that the balance between IPP and DMAPP controlled by Idi activity can be tuned up or down depending on the needs of the downstream pathway.

FIG. 10 illustrates the role of YdbK as a pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase and/or pyruvate synthase in enhancing terpenoid biosynthesis.

FIG. 11 shows that expressing an additional copy of ydbK under increasing promoter strength can improve terpenoid production. The control strain produces terpenoid product A, and has additional copies of genes dxs, dxr, ispD, ispE, ispF, ispG′, ispH, and idi of the MEP pathway under defined constitutive expression.

FIG. 12 shows that improvements in terpenoid product titer from ydbK overexpression requires sufficient ispG and/or ispH. Control A has additional copies of dxs, ispD, ispF, and idi of the MEP pathway, a non-engineered 20 kb deletion, as well as other modifications to improve performance of iron-sulfur cluster proteins. Control B is Control A plus an additional integrated copy of ispG′ and ispH in operon configuration (G′ first, such that the H/G ratio favors G), while Control C is Control A plus an additional integrated copy of ispH and ispG′ in operon configuration (H first, such that the H/G ratio favors H).

FIG. 13 shows that expressing fdx in addition to ydbK can improve terpenoid titers. The control strain produces terpenoid product A, and has additional copies of genes dxs, dxr, ispD, ispE, ispF, ispG′, ispH, and idi of the MEP pathway under defined constitutive expression. The strain also has a non-engineered 20 kb deletion and other modifications to improve performance of iron-sulfur cluster proteins.

FIG. 14 illustrates the interface between glycolysis and the MEP pathway, and illustrates opportunities to tune co-factor availability by altering expression of oxidoreductase enzymes.

FIG. 15 is a diagram illustrating the three known reactions in E. coli to convert pyruvate (PYR) to acetyl-CoA (AcCoA) and illustrates how reducing or eliminating PDH mediated conversion of PYR to AcCoA results in the increase of PFOR-mediated conversion of PYR to AcCoA.

FIGS. 16A-D are graphs showing the fold change in terpenoid product production in bacterial strains having overexpressed YdbK and knockout of aceE (ΔaceE), as compared to control. The control is the same strain without (ΔaceE). ΔaceE prevents PDH-mediated conversion of PYR to AcCoA. FIG. 16A shows the fold change in bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product B. FIG. 16B shows the fold change in bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product C. FIG. 16C shows the fold change in bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product D. FIG. 16D shows the fold change in bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product E.

FIG. 16E is a graph showing that bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product D, overexpress YdbK, and have ΔaceE show a reduction in extracellular MEcPP as compared to control (no ΔaceE).

FIGS. 17A-C are graphs showing the fold change in terpenoid product in bacterial strains having overexpressed YdbK and mutated aceE (aceE mut), as compared to control (no aceE mut). aceE mut reduces PDH-mediated conversion of PYR to AcCoA. FIG. 17A shows the fold change in bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product B. FIG. 17B shows the fold change in bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product C. FIG. 17C shows the fold change in bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product D.

FIG. 17D is a graph showing that a bacterial strain that produces terpenoid Product D, overexpresses YdbK, and expresses an aceE mut has a reduction in extracellular MEcPP as compared to control (no aceE mut).

FIG. 18 is a diagram illustrating the three known reactions in E. coli to convert pyruvate (PYR) to acetyl-CoA (AcCoA) and illustrates how expressing fdx or fldA homologs can increase the electron supply to IspG and/or IspH through the Fd redox reaction (shown in bold).

FIG. 19A is a graph showing the fold change (as compared to the empty vector control (emp)) of terpenoid Product B production in a bacterial strain engineered to overexpress YdbK and overexpress an fdx or fldA homolog.

FIG. 19B is a graph showing the fold change (as compared to control) of terpenoid Product D in a bacterial strain engineered to overexpress YdbK and Cv.fdx (an fdx homolog from Allochromatium vinosum).

FIG. 19C is a graph showing that a bacterial strain that produces terpenoid Product D and overexpresses YdbK and Cv.fdx has a reduction in extracellular MEcPP as compared to control (without overexpression of Cv.fdx).

FIG. 20 is a graph showing the fold change in the production of terpenoid product in bacterial strains that produce terpenoid Product F and which overexpress one or more PFOR or fpr homologs and, optionally, a fdx or fldA homolog.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

In various aspects, the invention relates to bacterial strains and methods for making terpene and terpenoid products, the bacterial strains having improved carbon flux through the MEP pathway and to a downstream recombinant synthesis pathway. In various embodiments, the invention provides for increased terpene and/or terpenoid product yield by fermentation of the bacterial strains with carbon sources such as glucose, glycerol, sucrose, and others.

For example, in some aspects the invention provides a bacterial strain that produces isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) through the MEP pathway, and converts the IPP and DMAPP to a terpene or terpenoid product through a downstream synthesis pathway. In the bacterial strain, IspG and IspH are overexpressed such that IspG activity and IspH activity are enhanced to provide increased carbon flux to 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl 4-diphosphate (HMBPP) intermediate, but balanced to prevent accumulation of HMBPP at an amount that significantly reduces cell growth, viability, MEP pathway flux, or product titer.

Increasing expression of both IspG and IspH can significantly increase titers of terpene and terpenoid products. Increasing expression of just IspG or IspH alone does not significantly improve titer. Further, overexpression of IspG alone can result in growth defects, which may relate to the observation that HMBPP (the intermediate in the MEP pathway produced by IspG, and consumed by IspH) is not found extracellularly, but is found 100% intracellularly. HMBPP metabolite appears to act as an inhibitor of the MEP pathway, and appears to be toxic to the bacterial cell at certain levels. Thus, the balance of activity between IspG and IspH is important to prevent HMBPP imbalance and accumulation.

HMBPP accumulation can be determined as an amount per dry cell weight (DCW). For example, in some embodiments, HMBPP does not accumulate at more than about 10 mg/g DCW, or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 8 mg/g of DCW, or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 5 mg/g of DCW, or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 4 mg/g DCW, or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 2 mg/g DCW. In some embodiments, HMBPP does not accumulate at more than about 1 mg/g DCW, or does not accumulate at more than about 0.5 mg/g DCW, or more than about 0.2 mg/g DCW, or more than about 0.1 mg/g DCW. The balanced overexpression of IspG and IspH (e.g., favoring more IspH activity) is important to pull MEP carbon downstream through HMBPP to IPP while preventing its imbalance and accumulation.

In some embodiments, IspG and IspH are overexpressed by introducing recombinant ispG and ispH genes into the bacterial strain. In other embodiments, the endogenous genes can be overexpressed by modifying, for example, the endogenous promoter or ribosomal binding site. When introducing recombinant ispG and/or ispH genes, the genes may optionally comprise one or more beneficial mutations.

In some embodiments, the additional gene may be substantially identical to the wild-type enzyme (e.g., the E. coli wild-type enzyme), or may be modified to increase activity or may be an IspG or IspH ortholog having similar, higher, or lower activity than the native bacterial (e.g., E. coli) enzyme. For example, with respect to IspG, the amino acid sequence may have 50% or more sequence identity with SEQ ID NO: 1, or at least about 60% sequence identity, or at least about 70% sequence identity, or at least about 80% sequence identity, or at least about 90% sequence identity, or at least about 95% sequence identity, or at least about 98% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:1. In some embodiments, from 1 to about 10, or from 1 to about 5 amino acid substitutions, deletions, and/or insertions are made to the IspG amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1) to alter the activity of the protein, including substitutions to one or more of the substrate binding site or active site. Modifications to E. coli or other IspG can be informed by construction of a homology model. For example, a suitable homolog for construction of an E. coli IspG homology model is disclosed in: Lee M, et al. Biosynthesis of isoprenoids: crystal structure of the [4Fe-4S] cluster protein IspG. J Mol Biol. 2010 Dec. 10; 404(4):600-10. An exemplary IspG mutant with improvements in activity has four amino acid substitutions with respect to the wild type E. coli enzyme (referred to herein as IspG′).

Further, with respect to IspH, the amino acid sequence may have 50% or more sequence identity with SEQ ID NO:2, or at least about 60% sequence identity, or at least about 70% sequence identity, or at least about 80% sequence identity, or at least about 90% sequence identity, or at least about 95% sequence identity, or at least about 98% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2. In some embodiments, from 1 to about 10, or from 1 to about 5, amino acid substitutions, deletions, and/or insertions are made to the IspH amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:2) to alter the activity of the protein, including substitutions to one or more of the substrate binding site or active site. Modifications to the IspH enzyme can be informed by available IspH structures, including Grawert, T., et al. Structure of active IspH enzyme from Escherichia coli provides mechanistic insights into substrate reduction 2009 Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 48: 5756-5759.

Table 1 provides a list of alternative enzymes useful for constructing bacterial strains and/or modifying IspG or IspH enzymes for enhanced expression in bacterial cells or enhanced physical properties, each of which can be modified by amino acid substitution, deletion, and/or insertion. For example, the amino acid sequence may have 50% or more sequence identity, or at least about 60% sequence identity, or at least about 70% sequence identity, or at least about 80% sequence identity, or at least about 90% sequence identity, or at least about 95% sequence identity, or at least about 98% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence described in Table 1. In some embodiments, from 1 to about 10, or from 1 to about 5, amino acid substitutions, deletions, and/or insertions are made to a sequence of Table 1 to alter the activity of the protein, including substitutions to one or more of the substrate binding site or active site. In some embodiments, the IspG and/or IspH enzyme is an ortholog of the E. coli enzyme having improved properties or activity under conditions used for culturing.

TABLE 1 Gene Species Accession number ispG Bacillus subtilis NP_390386.1 ispG Chloroboculum tepidum NP_661053.1 ispG Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 WP_010872347.1 ispH Bacillus subtilis NP_390395.2 ispH Burkholderia sp. MSh1 WP_031398482.1 ispH Chloroboculum tepidum NP_661187.1 ispH Stevia rebaudiana ABB88836.2 ispH Stevia rebaudiana ALJ30091.1 ispH Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 WP_010873388.1

The expression of the recombinant IspG and IspH enzymes can be balanced, for example, by modifying the promoter strength, gene copy number, position of the genes in an operon, and/or modifying the ribosome binding site sequence of the ispG and/or ispH recombinant genes. When the expression and/or activity of IspG and IspH are balanced, HMBPP intermediate does not accumulate in cells substantially more than in a parent strain that does not comprise the recombinant or modified ispG and ispH genes. This is despite the substantial increase in carbon flux through the MEP pathway that is required for commercial production of terpenes and terpenoids by fermentation. This result is shown in FIG. 3, where strains overexpressing ispG and ispH, which can produce close to a 4-fold increase in product titer as compared to a control strain that does not overexpress ispG and ispH (FIG. 2), nevertheless do not accumulate HMBPP intermediate above that in the control.

In some embodiments, the activity and/or expression of recombinant IspH is higher than the activity and/or expression of the recombinant IspG. An IspG/IspH ratio that favors more H enzyme results in high flux through the MEP pathway relative to a strain favoring the IspG side of the ratio. IspG and IspH work sequentially to convert MEcPP to HMBPP, then to IPP. Increasing IspG accumulates a larger HMBPP pool (which can show inhibitory effects on strain growth), while increasing IspH shrinks the HMBPP pool as it is converted to IPP. Thus, the ideal balance between IspG and IspH enhances the rate of both HMBPP formation and consumption, while avoiding HMBPP accumulation, which significantly improves flux through the MEP pathway to the target terpenoid. A slight favoring of IspH over IspG can further improve productivity by 25%, to nearly 4 times the titers of the parent strain. See FIG. 2.

Thus, in some embodiments, the expression of the recombinant IspH is higher than the expression of the recombinant IspG. For example, the recombinant IspH and IspG enzymes can be expressed from an operon, with ispH positioned before ispG in the operon. The gene positioned first in the operon will be slightly favored for expression, providing an elegant balancing mechanism for IspH and IspG. In some embodiments, ispG can be positioned first, optionally together with other modifications, such as mutations to the RBS to reduce expression, or point mutations to one or both of IspG and IspH that balance activity at the level of enzyme productivity. In some embodiments, ispG and ispH are expressed in separate operons (e.g., monocistronic) and expression balanced using promoters or RBSs of different strengths.

In some embodiments, IspH and IspG are expressed together from an operon (with the ispH gene positioned before the ispG gene), and with the operon expressed under control of a strong promoter. While increasing promoter strength has a positive impact on productivity when ispH is positioned before ispG in the operon, increasing promoter strength can have a negative impact when ispG is positioned before ispH. See FIG. 7, using farnesol production as a surrogate for product.

Recombinant IspG and IspH enzymes can be expressed from a plasmid or the encoding genes may be integrated into the chromosome, and can be present in single or multiple copies, in some embodiments, for example, about 2 copies, about 5 copies, or about 10 copies per cell. Copy number can be controlled by use of plasmids with different copy number (as is well known in the art), or by incorporating multiple copies into the genome, e.g., by tandem gene duplication.

In some embodiments, the microbial strain has high flux through the MEP pathway, including for example, by overexpression of one or more MEP enzymes (e.g., in addition to IspG and IspH). With glucose as carbon source, the theoretical maximum for carbon entering the MEP pathway is about 30% in E. coli. Prior yields of MEP carbon reported in the literature are less than 1%. See, Zhou K, Zou R, Stephanopoulos G, Too H-P (2012) Metabolite Profiling Identified Methvlervthritol Cyclodiphosphate Efflux as a Limiting Step in Microbial Isoprenoid Production. PLoS ONE 7(11): e47513. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047513. Overexpression and balancing of MEP pathway genes, in addition to other modifications described herein can pull carbon through the MEP pathway and into a downstream synthesis pathway to improve carbon flux through to terpene and/or terpenoid products.

The host cell (the bacterial strain) expresses an MEP pathway producing isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). Specifically, glucose comes into the cell and is converted to pyruvate (PYR) with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate as an intermediate (G3P or GAP). G3P and PYR are combined to make 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate (DOXP), which is converted to 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (MEP) and commits the pathway to IPP and DMAPP. DOX, ME, and MEcPP are found outside the cell. The more flux into the MEP pathway, the more these products are found extracellularly in strains with unbalanced pathways. See FIG. 1.

The MEP (2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate) pathway is also called the MEP/DOXP (2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate/l-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate) pathway or the non-mevalonate pathway or the mevalonic acid-independent pathway. The pathway typically involves action of the following enzymes: 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (Dxs), 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (Dxr, or IspC), 4-diphosphocytidyl-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol synthase (IspD), 4-diphosphocytidyl-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase (IspE), 2C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate synthase (IspF), 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl 4-diphosphate synthase (IspG), 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl 4-diphosphate reductase (IspH) and isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase (Idi). The MEP pathway, and the genes and enzymes that make up the MEP pathway, are described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,512,988, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Thus, genes that make up the MEP pathway include dxs, dxr (or ispC), ispD, ispE, ispF, ispG, ispH, idi, and ispA. The amino acid sequences for MEP pathway enzymes are shown in the attached listing of Sequences.

IPP and DMAPP (the products of the MEP pathway) are the precursors of terpenes and terpenoids, including monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, and diterpenoids, which have particular utility in the flavor, fragrance, cosmetics, and food sectors. Synthesis of terpenes and terpenoids proceeds via conversion of IPP and DMAPP precursors to geranyl diphosphate (GPP), farnesyl diphosphate (FPP), or geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP), through the action of a prenyl transferase enzyme (e.g., GPPS, FPPS, or GGPPS). Such enzymes are known, and are described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 8,927,241, WO 2016/073740, and WO 2016/029153, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

In various embodiments, the invention results in substantial improvements in MEP carbon. As used herein, the term “MEP carbon” refers to the total carbon present as an input, intermediate, metabolite, or product of the MEP pathway. Metabolites include derivatives such as breakdown products, and products of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. MEP carbon includes products and intermediates of downstream pathways including terpenoid synthesis pathways. For purposes of this disclosure, MEP carbon includes the following inputs, intermediates, and metabolites of the MEP pathway: D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, pyruvate, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose, 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-5-phosphate, 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol, 4-diphosphocytidyl-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol, 2-phospho-4-diphosphocytidyl-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol, 2C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate, 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-(E)-butenyl 4-diphosphate, isopentenyl diphosphate, and dimethylallyl diphosphate. MEP carbon further includes intermediates and key metabolites in the downstream terpenoid synthesis pathway expressed by the cell. While the identity will vary based upon pathway and enzymes employed, such products include: geranyl diphosphate (GPP), farnesyl diphosphate (FPP), geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP), or geranylfarnesyl diphosphate (FGPP); their monophosphorylated versions geranyl phosphate, farnesyl phosphate, geranylgeranyl phosphate, or geranylfarnesyl phosphate; their alcohols geraniol, farnesol, geranylgeraniol, or geranylfarnesol; as well as downstream terpene and terpenoid products. MEP carbon further includes compounds derived from FPP or pathways that use FPP, including squalene, undecaprenyl diphosphate (UPP), undecaprenyl phosphate, octaprenyl diphosphate (OPP), 4-hydroxybenzoate, 3-octaprenyl-4-hydroxybenzoate, 2-octaprenylphenol, 3-octaprenylbenzene-1,2-diol, 2-methoxy-6-octaprenyl-2-methoxy-1,4-benzoquinol, 6-methoxy-3-methyloctaprenyl-1,4-benzoquinol, 3-demethyluibquinol-8, ubiquinol-8, ubiquinone, 2-carboxy-1,4-naphthoquinol, demethylmenaquinol-8, menaquinol-8, and menaquinone. MEP carbon further includes isoprenol, prenol, isopentenyl phosphate, and dimethylallyl phosphate metabolites. MEP carbon (the intermediates and metabolites above) can be quantified by mass spectrometry (MS), such as tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) via triple quadrupole (QQQ) mass detector. An exemplary system is Agilent 6460 QQQ; alternatively, with quantitative time-of-flight (QTOF), time-of-flight (TOF), or ion trap mass detectors.

In some embodiments, the microbial strain has at least one additional copy of dxs, ispD, ispF, and/or idi genes, which can be rate limiting, and which can be expressed from an operon or module, either on a plasmid or integrated into the bacterial chromosome. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain has at least one additional copy of dxs and idi expressed as an operon/module; or dxs, ispD, ispF, and idi expressed as an operon or module. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain expresses dxs, dxr, ispD, ispE, ispF, and idi as recombinant genes, which are optionally expressed as 1, 2, or 3 individual operons or modules. The recombinant genes of the MEP pathway are expressed from one or more plasmids or are integrated into the chromosome. In these embodiments, the strain provides increased flux through the MEP pathway as compared to wild type.

Amino acid sequences for wild type E. coli enzymes Dxs, Dxr, IspD, IspE, IspF, and Idi are shown herein as SEQ ID NOS: 3 to 8. In various embodiments, enzymes having structural or sequence homology, and comparable functionality, can be employed (including bacterial homologs). For example, the amino acid sequence may have 50% or more sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID NOS:3-8, or at least about 60% sequence identity, or at least about 70% sequence identity, or at least about 80% sequence identity, or at least about 90% sequence identity, or at least about 95% sequence identity, or at least about 98% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:3-8. In some embodiments, from 1 to about 10, or from 1 to about 5, amino acid substitutions, deletions, and/or insertions are made to the amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:3-8) to alter the activity of the protein, including substitutions to one or more of the substrate binding site or active site. Modifications to enzymes can be informed by construction of a homology model. Such mutants can be informed by enzyme structures available in the art, including Yajima S, et al., Structure of 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase in a quaternary complex with a magnesium ion, NADPH and the antimalarial drug fosmidomycin, Acta Cryst. F63, 466-470 (2007).

In some embodiments, the MEP complementation enhances conversion of DOXP and MEP pools to MEcPP, the substrate for IspG. See FIG. 1. Bottlenecks in the MEP pathway from dxs to ispF can be determined with regard to DOX, ME, and MEcPP levels, which can be detected extracellularly. Complementation and expression of MEP pathway enzymes can be balanced to move carbon flux to MEcPP intermediate, as determined by metabolite profiling. In some embodiments, the expression or activity of IspG and IspH is balanced with respect to the expression or activity of Dxr, Dxs, IspD, IspE and IspF to pull MEcPP metabolite to IPP and DMAPP precursors. MEcPP can be transported to the extracellular medium, and thus large MEcPP pools can result in lost MEP carbon.

In some embodiments, the expression or activity of a recombinant idi gene is tuned to increase terpene or terpenoid production. The Idi enzyme catalyzes the reversible isomerization of IPP to DMAPP. Since every desired terpenoid product or undesired MEP side-product (e.g., UPP) uses one DMAPP and varying numbers of IPP, the ratio between the two precursors can have an impact on strain productivity. Varying the ratio of IPP:DMAPP available, e.g., by varying Idi expression or activity, can have an impact on the production of the desired terpenoid relative to other undesired products from the MEP pathway. For example, as shown in FIG. 9, while Idi overexpression slightly increases product titer in a strain that does not overexpress IspGH (Strain 1), it decreases titer in two strains that do (Strains 2 and 3), indicating that the balance between IPP and DMAPP controlled by Idi can be tuned up or down depending on the needs of the downstream pathway. However, Strain 4 (FIG. 9), which has a different balance of MEP pathway enzyme expression, more than doubles titer with Idi complementation. The expression of the recombinant idi gene can be tuned in various embodiments by modifying the promoter strength, gene copy number, position in an operon, or ribosome binding site, in addition to point mutations to increase or decrease enzyme productivity.

The microbial strain provides substantial increases in MEP carbon, including substantial increases in IPP and DMAPP precursor flux, without substantial impact on strain growth and viability, for example, as determined by optical density (O.D.) in culture, peak O.D., and/or growth rate. For example, despite increased flux through the MEP pathway, which is tightly controlled in bacterial cells, the microbial strain does not have a drop in peak O.D. of more than about 20%0, or in some embodiments, does not have a drop in peak O.D. of more than about 15%, or more than about 10%, or more than about 5%. In some embodiments, the strain does not exhibit a measurable impact on strain growth or viability, as determined for example by measuring growth rate or peak O.D.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain contains one or more genetic modifications that enhance the supply and transfer of electrons through the MEP pathway, and/or to terpene or terpenoid products. In some embodiments, the enhanced supply and transfer of electrons through the MEP pathway is by recombinant expression of one or more oxidoreductase enzymes, including oxidoreductases that oxidize pyruvate and/or lead to reduction of ferredoxin. Ferredoxin supplies electrons to the MEP pathway and supports activity of IspG and IspH (which are Fe—S cluster enzymes). See FIG. 10. In various embodiments, the microbial strain comprises an overexpression of or complementation with one or more of a flavodoxin (fldA), flavodoxin reductase, ferredoxin (fdx), and ferredoxin reductase.

By way of example, in some embodiments, the oxidoreductase is a pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR). In some embodiments, the PFOR is YdbK. In some embodiments, the YdbK is E. coli YdbK, or orthologs and derivatives thereof.

In some embodiments, the strain contains a complementation or overexpression of YdbK. YdbK is predicted to function as a pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase and/or pyruvate synthase. The oxidoreductase is thought to oxidize pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, reducing ferredoxin, which can then supply electrons to the MEP pathway, especially to support the strongly upregulated IspG and IspH enzymes that contain Fe—S clusters. In some embodiments, the expression of a recombinant YdbK is balanced with the expression of IspG and IspH, which can be determined by product titer (or farnesol titer as described below). In some embodiments, the YdbK gene is under the control of a weak or intermediate strength promoter. Additionally, extra electron-carrying or transferring cofactors can be expressed on top of YdbK overexpression. See, e.g., Akhtar, et al., Metabolic Engineering, 11(3): 139-147 (2009). In some experiments, YdbK is overexpressed with fdx (ferredoxin) from Clostridium pasteurianum (SEQ ID NO:10) and/or E. Coli (Ec.ydhY) (SEQ ID NO: 34), or enzyme having at least 80% or at least 90% sequence identity therewith. The bacterial strain may comprise a recombinant YdbK gene, which may be integrated into the chromosome or expressed from a plasmid. The amino acid sequence of the E. coli YdbK enzyme is shown herein as SEQ ID NO:9. In various embodiments, enzymes having structural or sequence homology, and comparable functionality, can be employed. For example, the amino acid sequence may have 50% or more sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID NO:9, or at least about 60%, sequence identity, or at least about 70% sequence identity, or at least about 80% sequence identity, or at least about 90% sequence identity, or at least about 95% sequence identity, or at least about 97% sequence identity, or at least about 98% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:9. In some embodiments, from 1 to about 10, or from 1 to about 5 amino acid substitutions, deletions, and/or insertions are made to the amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:9) to alter the activity of the protein.

In some embodiments, the strain comprises one or more P450 enzymes for the production of a terpenoid compound. The overexpression of YdbK and potentially other oxidoreductases, might support higher levels of P450 oxidative chemistry.

In some embodiments, including in embodiments where the bacterial strain overexpresses or has higher activity of pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR), the strain exhibits reduced conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-COA by pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH). In some embodiments, the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-COA by PDH is reduced by deleting or inactivating PDH, or by reducing expression or activity of PDH. In some embodiments, PDH is deleted. Alternatively, activity of PDH may be reduced by one or more amino acid modifications. An exemplary mutation to reduce PDH activity is a G267C mutation in aceE.

In some embodiments, the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-COA by PDH is reduced by modifying the aceE-aceF-lpd complex of PDH. In some embodiments, the aceE-aceF-lpd complex is modified by the deletion, inactivation, or reduced expression or activity of aceE, aceF, lpd, or a combination thereof. By way of example, in some embodiments, aceE is deleted (e.g., by knockout). Alternatively, in some embodiments, the aceE-aceF-lpd complex is modified by one or more mutations of aceE, aceF, lpd, or a combination thereof.

By reducing conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-COA by PDH, the bacterial strain will rely more on PFOR (e.g., YdbK) for the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-COA. See FIG. 15. This reliance enhances IspG and IspH activity.

In some embodiments, supply and transfer of electrons to IspG and IspH is improved by overexpression or complementation with one or more oxidoreductases, such as, e.g., PFOR. By way of example, in some embodiments, the PFOR, or a homolog thereof, is selected from YdbK (SEQ ID NO: 9), Scy.pfor (Synechocystis sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 29), Ki.pfor (Kluyvera intermedia) (SEQ ID NO: 30), Da.pfor (Desulfovibrio africanus) (SEQ ID NO: 31), Ns.pfor (Nostoc sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 32), Ec.ydhV (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 33), Ga.pfor (Gilliamella apicola) (SEQ ID NO: 35), and Sco.pfor (Synechococcus sp.). In some embodiments, the PFOR is YdbK.

In some embodiments, the PFOR comprise a sequence that is at least 60% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs. 29-35. For example, the PFOR can comprise a sequence that is at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% identical to any of one of SEQ ID NOs. 29-35.

In some embodiments, the overexpression or complementation with PFOR such as, e.g., YdbK, can result in improved performance through expression of electron carriers having a redox potential of about 400 to 550 mV, or in some embodiments, in the range of about 400 to 500 mV, or in the range of about 400 to 475 mV. In some embodiment, the electron carrier is ferrodoxin, flavodoxin, or NADPH. By way of example, in some embodiments, the electron carrier is Cv.fdx (Allochromatinum vinosum).

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain has overexpression or complementation with one or more fpr homologs. By way of example, in some embodiments, the fpr homolog is selected from Ns.fpr (Nostoc sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 36), Sco.fpr (Synechococcus sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 37), and Ec.fpr (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 38).

In some embodiments, the fpr comprise a sequence that is at least 60% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs. 36-38. For example, the fpr can comprise a sequence that is at least about 60%, at least about 70, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% identical to any of one of SEQ ID NOs: 36-38.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain overexpressing YdbK or homolog or derivative thereof, further expresses a non-native electron acceptor/donor, such as one or more non-native fdx and/or fldA homologs. By way of example, the fdx homolog may be selected from Hm.fdx1 (Heliobacterium modesticaldum) (SEQ ID NO: 15), Pa.fdx (Pseudomonas aeruginosa) (SEQ ID NO: 16), Cv.fdx (Allochromatium vinosum) (SEQ ID NO: 17), Cv.fdx_C57A (synthetic) (SEQ ID NO: 18), Ec.yfhL (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 19), Ca.fdx (Clostridium acetobutylicum) (SEQ ID NO: 20), Cp.fdx (Clostridium pasteurianum) (SEQ ID NO: 10), Ec.fdx (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 21), Ev2.fdx (Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii) (SEQ ID NO: 22), Pp1.fdx (Pseudomonas putida) (SEQ ID NO: 23), and Pp2.fdx (Pseudomonas putida) (SEQ ID NO: 24). In some embodiments, the fldA homolog includes one or more selected from Ec.fldA (E. coli) (SEQ ID NO: 27), Ac.fldA2 (Azotobacter chroococcum) (SEQ ID NO: 26), Av.fldA2 (Azotobacter vinelandii) (SEQ ID NO: 25), and Bs.fldA (B. subtilis) (SEQ ID NO: 28). Expression of a non-native fdx homolog and/or fldA homolog results in an increased supply of electrons to IspG and/or IspH, an increase in IspG/H activity, and an increase in terpenoid production. See FIGS. 19A-C.

In some embodiments, the non-native fdx homologs comprise a sequence that is at least 60% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs. 10 and 15-24. For example, the non-native fdx homologs can comprise a sequence that is at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% identical to any of one of SEQ ID NOs. 10 and 15-24.

In some embodiments, the non-native fldA homologs comprise a sequence that is at least 60% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs. 25-28. For example, the non-native fldA homologs can comprise a sequence that is at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% identical to any of one of SEQ ID NOs. 25-28.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain has overexpression or complementation with one or more PFOR and/or fpr and, optionally, one or more of a flavodoxin (fldA), flavodoxin reductase, ferredoxin (fdx), and ferredoxin reductase. By way of example, in some embodiments the bacterial strain includes Ec.ydhV (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 33) and Ec.ydhY (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 34); Ec.ydbK (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 9) and Cp.fdx (Clostridium pasteurianum) (SEQ ID NO: 10); Ec.fpr (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 38) and Ec.fdx (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 21); or Ec.fpr (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 38) and Ec.fldA (E. coli) (SEQ ID NO: 27).

In other aspects, the invention provides bacterial strains that overexpress PgpB or NudB enzymes, for increasing MEP carbon pull. Installing this alternate ‘product’ pull by overexpressing genes such as pgpB and nudB pulls even more flux through the MEP pathway (though to non-target products) and minimizes the accumulation of potentially toxic or feedback inhibitory intermediates (e.g., IPP, DMAPP, FPP). In some embodiments, the PgpB or NudB overexpression is in the absence of a downstream terpenoid pathway, thereby creating a ‘universal chassis’; that is, a strain that can have any terpenoid downstream transformed into it and be quickly optimized for commercial production.

More specifically, carbon can be pulled through the MEP pathway to create alternate products that will pool outside the cell. PgpB dephosphorylates FPP to farnesol (FOH), and NudB dephosphorylates IPP and DMAPP to isoprenol (3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol) and prenol (3-methyl-2-buten-1-ol), respectively (See FIG. 1). Enhancing transport of these products outside the cell prevents buildup of IPP, DMAPP, and FPP; which like HMBPP, can feedback and exert control on the MEP pathway. IPP inhibits growth and feedback inhibits Dxs. See Cordoba, Salmi & Leon (2009) J. Exp. Bot. 60, 10, 2933-2943. FPP inhibits growth and feedback inhibits ispF-MEP complex, which itself is formed when MEP binds and enhances IspF activity in a feed-forward manner. Bitok & Meyers (2012) ACS Chem. Biol. 2012, 7, 1702-1710. Farnesol, isoprenol, and prenol accumulate outside the cell and, like the intermediates in the MEP pathway, can be used to track carbon flux through the MEP pathway via LC/MS or GC/MS quantitation.

In various embodiments, enzymes having structural or sequence homology, and comparable functionality, can be employed. For example, the amino acid sequence may have 50% or more sequence identity with either SEQ ID NOS: 11 (PgpB) or 12 (NudB), or at least about 60% sequence identity, or at least about 70% sequence identity, or at least about 80% sequence identity, or at least about 90% sequence identity, or at least about 95% sequence identity with the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or 12. In some embodiments, from 1 to about 10, or from 1 to about 5 amino acid substitutions, deletions, and/or insertions are made to the amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 11 or 12) to alter the activity of the protein, including substitutions to one or more of the substrate binding site or active site.

Thus, by constitutively expressing an additional copy of pgpB or nudB, carbon flux through the MEP pathway can be improved, and a slow growth phenotype ameliorated. In cases where ispG and ispH are balanced and pgpB or nudB are overexpressed, the increase or decrease in farnesol product is inversely correlated with MEcPP level (FIGS. 7 and 8).

However, too much PgpB or NudB expression might negatively impact the total flux through to farnesol, with lower titer and smaller fold-change. See FIG. 6. Thus, in various embodiments, the expression of the recombinant PgpB and/or NudB is tuned to provide higher terpene or terpenoid product titer, optionally by varying promoter strength, gene copy number, position in an operon, and/or ribosome binding site. In some embodiments, the recombinant pgpB and/or nudB genes are expressed under control of a weak or intermediate strength promoter. The recombinant pgpB or nudB can be integrated into the chromosome or expressed from a plasmid.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strains overexpress one or more synthases for increasing MEP carbon pull. By way of example, in some embodiments, the synthase is selected from Artemisia annua farnesene synthase and valencene synthase.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain has one or more additional modifications to increase co-factor availability or turnover, including NADH and NADPH cofactor, thereby leading to increases in MEP carbon. See FIG. 14. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain expresses a glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (GAPOR), for example, from Methanococcus maripaludis (SEQ ID NO: 14) or other mesophilic organism. Expression of a GAPOR would provide electrons to ferredoxins in central carbon metabolism, and could provide electrons for IspG, IspH or P450 enzymes. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain overexpresses one or more genes of the ydh operon, such as ydhV or ydhY (e.g., by complementing the wild-type gene or enhancing expression of the endogenous bacterial gene). YdhV or other bacterial genes having GAPOR-like activity can increase co-factor availability to further enhance MEP carbon. Other genetic modifications include downregulation, inactivation, or deletion of gshA or expression of CHAC1 and/or CHAC2 (e.g., from Homo sapiens). These modifications can alter glutathione levels, thereby indirectly increasing NADPH availability.

While various bacterial species can be modified in accordance with the disclosure, in some embodiments, the bacterial strain is a bacteria selected from Escherichia spp., Bacillus spp., Corynebacterium spp., Rhodobacter spp., Zymomonas spp., Vibrio spp., and Pseudomonas spp. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain is a species selected from Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Rhodobacter capsulatus, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Zymomonas mobilis, Vibrio natriegens, or Pseudomonas putida. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain is E. coli.

In accordance with embodiments described herein, various strategies can be employed for engineering the expression or activity of recombinant genes and enzymes, including, for example, modifications or replacement of promoters of different strengths, modifications to the ribosome binding sequence, modifications to the order of genes in an operon or module, gene codon usage, RNA or protein stability, RNA secondary structure, and gene copy number, among others.

In some embodiments, the ribosome binding site sequence can be altered, to tune translation of the mRNA. The Shine-Dalgarno (SD) sequence is the ribosomal binding site in bacteria and is generally located around 8 bases upstream of the start codon AUG. The RNA sequence helps recruit the ribosome to the messenger RNA (mRNA) to initiate protein synthesis by aligning the ribosome with the start codon. The six-base consensus sequence is AGGAGG (SEQ ID NO: 13) in Escherichia coli. Mutations in the consensus sequence can be screened for improvements in product titer (including farnesol titer in some embodiments), or screened by metabolomic analysis of MEP carbon.

For complementation of genes, wild type genes can be employed, and in some embodiments, the gene is a wild-type E. coli gene. Alternatively, various orthologs can be employed, which may show nucleotide or amino acid homology to the E. coli gene. Exemplary genes can be derived from the orthologs of Bacillus spp., Corynebacterium spp., Rhodobacter spp., Zymomonas spp., Vibrio spp., Pseudomonas spp., Chloroboculum spp., Synechocystis sp., Burkholderia spp., and Stevia rebaudiana, for example.

The similarity of nucleotide and amino acid sequences, i.e. the percentage of sequence identity, can be determined via sequence alignments. Such alignments can be carried out with several art-known algorithms, such as with the mathematical algorithm of Karlin and Altschul (Karlin & Altschul (1993) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90: 5873-5877), with hmmalign (HMMER package, http://hmmer.wustl.edu/) or with the CLUSTAL algorithm (Thompson, J. D., Higgins, D. G. & Gibson, T. J. (1994) Nucleic Acids Res. 22, 4673-80). The grade of sequence identity (sequence matching) may be calculated using e.g. BLAST, BLAT or BlastZ (or BlastX). A similar algorithm is incorporated into the BLASTN and BLASTP programs of Altschul et al (1990) J. Mol. Biol. 215: 403-410. BLAST polynucleotide searches can be performed with the BLASTN program, score=100, word length=12.

BLAST protein searches may be performed with the BLASTP program, score=50, word length=3. To obtain gapped alignments for comparative purposes, Gapped BLAST is utilized as described in Altschul et al (1997) Nucleic Acids Res. 25: 3389-3402. When utilizing BLAST and Gapped BLAST programs, the default parameters of the respective programs are used. Sequence matching analysis may be supplemented by established homology mapping techniques like Shuffle-LAGAN (Brudno M., Bioinformatics 2003b, 19 Suppl 1:154-162) or Markov random fields.

“Conservative substitutions” may be made, for instance, on the basis of similarity in polarity, charge, size, solubility, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity, and/or the amphipathic nature of the amino acid residues involved. The 20 naturally occurring amino acids can be grouped into the following six standard amino acid groups:

-   -   (1) hydrophobic: Met, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile;     -   (2) neutral hydrophilic: Cys, Ser, Thr; Asn, Gin;     -   (3) acidic: Asp, Glu;     -   (4) basic: His, Lys, Arg;     -   (5) residues that influence chain orientation: Gly, Pro; and     -   (6) aromatic: Trp, Tyr, Phe.

As used herein, “conservative substitutions” are defined as exchanges of an amino acid by another amino acid listed within the same group of the six standard amino acid groups shown above. For example, the exchange of Asp by Glu retains one negative charge in the so modified polypeptide. In addition, glycine and proline may be substituted for one another based on their ability to disrupt α-helices. Some preferred conservative substitutions within the above six groups are exchanges within the following sub-groups: (i) Ala, Val, Leu and Ile; (ii) Ser and Thr; (ii) Asn and Gin; (iv) Lys and Arg; and (v) Tyr and Phe.

As used herein, “non-conservative substitutions” are defined as exchanges of an amino acid by another amino acid listed in a different group of the six standard amino acid groups (1) to (6) shown above.

Modifications of enzymes as described herein can include conservative and/or non-conservative mutations.

In some embodiments “rational design” is involved in constructing specific mutations in enzymes. Rational design refers to incorporating knowledge of the enzyme, or related enzymes, such as its reaction thermodynamics and kinetics, its three dimensional structure, its active site(s), its substrate(s) and/or the interaction between the enzyme and substrate, into the design of the specific mutation. Based on a rational design approach, mutations can be created in an enzyme which can then be screened for increased production of a terpene or terpenoid relative to parent strain levels, or metabolite profile that corresponds with improvements in MEP carbon. In some embodiments, mutations can be rationally designed based on homology modeling. “Homology modeling” refers to the process of constructing an atomic resolution model of a protein from its amino acid sequence, using the three-dimensional structure of a related homologous protein.

Amino acid modifications can be made to enzymes to increase or decrease activity of the enzyme or enzyme complex. Gene mutations can be performed using any genetic mutation method known in the art. In some embodiment, a gene knockout eliminates a gene product in whole or in part. Gene knockouts can be performed using any knockout method known in the art.

Manipulation of the expression of genes and/or proteins, including gene modules, can be achieved through various methods. For example, expression of the genes or operons can be regulated through selection of promoters, such as inducible or constitutive promoters, with different strengths (e.g., strong, intermediate, or weak). Several non-limiting examples of promoters include Trc, T5 and T7. Additionally, expression of genes or operons can be regulated through manipulation of the copy number of the gene or operon in the cell. In some embodiments, expression of genes or operons can be regulated through manipulating the order of the genes within a module, where the genes transcribed first are generally expressed at a higher level. In some embodiments, expression of genes or operons is regulated through integration of one or more genes or operons into the chromosome.

In some embodiments, balancing gene expression includes the selection of high-copy number plasmids, or single-, low- or medium-copy number plasmids. In still other embodiments, the step of transcription termination can also be targeted for regulation of gene expression, through the introduction or elimination of structures such as stem-loops.

Expression vectors containing all the necessary elements for expression are commercially available and known to those skilled in the art. See, e.g., Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1989. Cells are genetically engineered by the introduction into the cells of heterologous DNA. The heterologous DNA is placed under operable control of transcriptional elements to permit the expression of the heterologous DNA in the host cell.

In some embodiments, endogenous genes are edited, as opposed to gene complementation. Editing can modify endogenous promoters, ribosomal binding sequences, or other expression control sequences, and/or in some embodiments modifies trans-acting and/or cis-acting factors in gene regulation. Genome editing can take place using CRISPR/Cas genome editing techniques, or similar techniques employing zinc finger nucleases and TALENs. In some embodiments, the endogenous genes are replaced by homologous recombination.

In some embodiments, genes are overexpressed at least in part by controlling gene copy number. While gene copy number can be conveniently controlled using plasmids with varying copy number, gene duplication and chromosomal integration can also be employed. For example, a process for genetically stable tandem gene duplication is described in US 2011/0236927, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

In certain embodiments, the bacterial cell produces one or more terpene or terpenoid compounds. A terpenoid, also referred to as an isoprenoid, is an organic chemical derived from a five-carbon isoprene unit (C5). Several non-limiting examples of terpenoids, classified based on the number of isoprene units that they contain, include: hemiterpenoids (1 isoprene unit), monoterpenoids (2 isoprene units), sesquiterpenoids (3 isoprene units), diterpenoids (4 isoprene units), sesterterpenoids (5 isoprene units), triterpenoids (6 isoprene units), tetraterpenoids (8 isoprene units), and polyterpenoids with a larger number of isoprene units. In an embodiment, the bacterial host cell produces a terpenoid selected from a monoterpenoid, a sesquiterpenoid, diterpenoid, a sesterpenoid, or a triterpenoid. Terpenoids represent a diverse class of molecules that provide numerous commercial applications, including in the food and beverage industries as well as the perfume, cosmetic and health care industries. By way of example, terpenoid compounds find use in perfumery (e.g. patchoulol), in the flavor industry (e.g., nootkatone), as sweeteners (e.g., steviol), colorants, or therapeutic agents (e.g., taxol) and many are conventionally extracted from plants. Nevertheless, terpenoid molecules are found in ppm levels in nature, and therefore require massive harvesting to obtain sufficient amounts for commercial applications.

The bacterial cell will generally contain a recombinant downstream pathway that produces the terpenoid from IPP and DMAPP precursors. Terpenes such as Monoterpenes (C10), Sesquiterpenes (C15), Diterpenes (C20), Sesterterpenes (C25), and Triterpenes (C30) are derived from the prenyl diphosphate substrates, geranyl diphosphate (GPP), farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGPP), geranylfarnesyl diphosphate (FGPP), and two FPP, respectively, through the action of a very large group of enzymes called the terpene (terpenoid) synthases. These enzymes are often referred to as terpene cyclases since the product of the reactions are cyclized to various monoterpene, sesquiterpene, diterpene, sesterterpene and triterpene carbon skeleton products. Many of the resulting carbon skeletons undergo subsequence oxygenation by cytochrome P450 enzymes to give rise to large families of derivatives.

Exemplary terpene or terpenoid products that may be produced in accordance with the invention are described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,927,241, which is hereby incorporated by reference, and include: farnesene, amorphadiene, artemisinic acid, artemisinin, bisabolol, bisabolene, alpha-Sinensal, beta-Thujone, Camphor, Carveol, Carvone, Cineole, Citral, Citronellal, Cubebol, Geraniol, Limonene, Menthol, Menthone, Myrcene, Nootkatone, Nootkatol, Patchouli, Piperitone, Rose oxide, Sabinene, Steviol, Steviol glycoside (including Rebaudioside D or Rebaudioside M), Taxadiene, Thymol, and Valencene. Enzymes for recombinantly constructing the pathways in E. coli are described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,927,241, WO 2016/073740, and WO 2016/029153, which are hereby incorporated by reference.

Exemplary P450 enzymes that are operative on sesquiterpene scaffolds to produce oxygenated terpenoids are described in WO 2016/029153, which is hereby incorporated by reference. In addition, P450 reductase proteins that find use in the bacterial strains described herein are described in WO 2016/029153 as well as WO 2016/073740.

As used herein, the term “oxygenated terpenoid” refers to a terpene scaffold having one or more oxygenation events, producing a corresponding alcohol, aldehyde, carboxylic acid and/or ketone. In some embodiments, the bacterial cell produces at least one terpenoid selected from Abietadiene, Abietic Acid, alpha-Sinensal, beta-Thujone, Camphor, Carveol, Carvone, Celastrol, Ceroplastol, Cineole, Citral, Citronellal, Cubebol, Cucurbitane, Forskolin, Gascardic Acid, Geraniol, Haslene, Levopimaric Acid, Limonene, Lupeol, Menthol, Menthone, Mogroside, Nootkatone, Nootkatol, Ophiobolin A, Patchouli, Piperitone, Rebaudioside D, Rebaudioside M, Sabinene, Steviol, Steviol glycoside, Taxadiene, Thymol, and Ursolic Acid.

In some embodiments, the terpenoid synthase enzyme is upgraded to enhance the kinetics, stability, product profile, and/or temperature tolerance of the enzyme, as disclosed, for example, in WO 2016/029153 and WO 2016/073740, which are hereby incorporated by reference.

In another embodiment, the bacterial cell produces valencene and/or nootkatone. In such an embodiment, the bacterial cell may express a biosynthetic pathway that further includes a famesyl diphosphate synthase, a Valencene Synthase, and a Valencene Oxidase. Farnesyl diphosphate synthases (FPPS) produce farnesyl diphosphates from isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). An exemplary farnesyl diphosphate synthase is ERG20 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (NCBI accession P08524) and E. coli ispA. Valencene synthase produces sesquiterpene scaffolds and are described in, for example, US 2012/0107893, US 2012/0246767, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,273,735, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. Genes and host cells for the production of terpenoid product comprising valencene and/or nootkatone are described in WO 2016/029153, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

In an embodiment, the bacterial cell produces steviol or steviol glycoside (e.g., RebD or RebM). Steviol is produced from kaurene by the action of two P450 enzymes, kaurene oxidase (KO) and kaurenoic acid hydroxylase (KAH). After production of steviol, various steviol glycoside products may be produced through a series of glycosylation reactions, which can take place in vitro or in vivo. Pathways and enzymes for production of steviol and steviol glycosides are disclosed in US 2013/0171328, US 2012/0107893, WO 2012/075030, WO 2014/122328, which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. WO 2016/073740 further discloses enzymes and bacterial host cells for production of RebM.

Other biosynthetic pathways for production of terpene or terpenoid compounds are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 8,927,241, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

The bacterial strain may be cultured in batch culture, continuous culture, or semi-continuous culture. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain is cultured using a fed-batch process comprising a first phase where bacterial biomass is created, followed by a terpene or terpenoid production phase. Fed-batch culture is a process where nutrients are fed to the bioreactor during cultivation and in which the product(s) remain in the bioreactor until the end of the run. Generally, a base medium supports initial cell culture and a feed medium is added to prevent nutrient depletion. The controlled addition of the nutrient directly affects the growth rate of the culture and helps to avoid overflow metabolism and formation of side metabolites.

An exemplary batch media for growing the bacterial strain (producing biomass) comprises, without limitation, yeast extract. In some embodiments, carbon substrates such C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and/or C6 carbon substrates are fed to the culture for production of the terpene or terpenoid product. In exemplary embodiments, the carbon source is glucose, sucrose, fructose, xylose, and/or glycerol. Culture conditions are generally selected from aerobic, microaerobic, and anaerobic.

In some embodiments, the culture is maintained under aerobic conditions, or microaerobic conditions. For example, when using a fed-batch process, the biomass production phase can take place under aerobic conditions, followed by reducing the oxygen levels for the product production phase. For example, the culture can be shifted to microaerobic conditions after from about 10 to about 20 hours. In this context, the term “microaerobic conditions” means that cultures are maintained just below detectable dissolved oxygen. See, Partridge J D, et al., Transition of Escherichia coli from Aerobic to Micro-aerobic Conditions Involves Fast and Slow Reacting Regulatory Components, J. Biol. Chem. 282(15): 11230-11237 (2007).

The production phase includes feeding a nitrogen source and a carbon source. For example, the nitrogen source can comprise ammonium (e.g., ammonium hydroxide). The carbon source may contain C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and/or C6 carbon sources, such as, in some embodiments, glucose, sucrose, or glycerol. The nitrogen and carbon feeding can be initiated when a predetermined amount of batch media is consumed, a process that provides for ease of scaling. In some embodiments, the nitrogen feed rate is from about 8 L per hour to about 20 L per hour, but will depend in-part on the product, strain, and scale.

In various embodiments, the bacterial host cell may be cultured at a temperature between 22° C. and 37° C. While commercial biosynthesis in bacteria such as E. coli can be limited by the temperature at which overexpressed and/or foreign enzymes are stable, recombinant enzymes (including the terpenoid synthase) may be engineered to allow for cultures to be maintained at higher temperatures, resulting in higher yields and higher overall productivity. In some embodiments, the culturing is conducted at about 22° C. or greater, about 23° C. or greater, about 24° C. or greater, about 25° C. or greater, about 26° C. or greater, about 27° C. or greater, about 28° C. or greater, about 29° C. or greater, about 30° C. or greater, about 31° C. or greater, about 32° C. or greater, about 33° C. or greater, about 34° C. or greater, about 35° C. or greater, about 36° C. or greater, or about 37° C. In some embodiments, the culture is maintained at a temperature of from 22 to 37° C., or a temperature of from 25 to 37° C., or a temperature of from 27 to 37° C., or a temperature of from 30 to 37° C.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain is cultured at commercial scale. In some embodiments, the size of the culture is at least about 100 L, or at least about 200 L, or at least about 500 L, or at least about 1,000 L, or at least about 10,000 L, or at least about 100,000 L, or at least about 500,000 L. In some embodiments, the culture is from about 300 L to about 1,000,000 L.

In various embodiments, methods further include recovering the terpene or terpenoid product from the cell culture or from cell lysates. In some embodiments, the culture produces at least about 100 mg/L, at least about 150 mg/L, or at least about 200 mg/L, or at least about 500 mg/L, or at least about 1 g/L, or at least about 5 g/L, or at least about 10 g/L, or at least about 15 g/L of the terpene or terpenoid product.

In some embodiments, the production of indole is used as a surrogate marker for terpenoid production, and/or the accumulation of indole in the culture is controlled to increase production. For example, in various embodiments, accumulation of indole in the culture is controlled to below about 100 mg/L, or below about 75 mg/L, or below about 50 mg/L, or below about 25 mg/L, or below about 10 mg/L. The accumulation of indole can be controlled by balancing enzyme expression (and in particular, balancing the upstream and downstream pathways) and activity using the multivariate modular approach as described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,927,241 (which is hereby incorporated by reference). In some embodiments, the accumulation of indole is controlled by chemical means.

Other markers for efficient production of terpene and terpenoids, include accumulation of DOX or ME in the culture media. Generally, the bacterial strains described herein do not accumulate large amounts of these chemical species, which accumulate in the culture at less than about 5 g/L, or less than about 4 g/L, or less than about 3 g/L, or less than about 2 g/L, or less than about 1 g/L, or less than about 500 mg/L, or less than about 100 mg/L.

In some embodiments, MEcPP is the predominant MEP metabolite in the culture media, although its accumulation is limited by the genetic modifications to the bacterial strain, which pull MEP carbon downstream to IPP and DMAPP precursors. In various embodiments, MEcPP accumulates in the culture at less than about 30 g/L, or less than about 20 g/L, or less than about 2 g/L, or less than about 1 g/L, or less than about 500 mg/L, or less than about 100 mg/L.

The optimization of terpene or terpenoid production by manipulation of MEP pathway genes, as well as manipulation of the upstream and downstream pathways, is not expected to be a simple linear or additive process. Rather, through combinatorial analysis, optimization is achieved through balancing components of the MEP pathway, as well as upstream and downstream pathways. Indole accumulation (including prenylated indole) and MEP metabolite accumulation (e.g., DOX, ME, MEcPP, HMBPP, farnesol, prenol and isoprenol) in the culture or cells can be used as surrogate markers to guide this process.

The terpene or terpenoid product can be recovered by any suitable process. Generally, recovery includes separation of material comprising product from the culture or cells, followed by extraction and purification. For example recovery can include partitioning the desired product into an organic phase or hydrophobic phase. Alternatively, the aqueous phase can be recovered, or the whole cell biomass can be recovered, for further processing.

For example, in some embodiments, the product is a volatile terpene or terpenoid product. In such embodiments, the terpene or terpenoid product can be recovered from an organic or hydrophobic phase that is mechanically separated from the culture. Alternatively or in addition, the terpene or terpenoid product is harvested from the liquid and/or solid phase. In some embodiments, the product is purified by sequential extraction and purification. For example, the product may be purified by chromatography-based separation and recovery, such as supercritical fluid chromatography. The product may be purified by distillation, including simple distillation, steam distillation, fractional distillation, wipe-film distillation, or continuous distillation.

In some embodiments, the product is a non-volatile terpene or terpenoid product, which in some embodiments is an extracellular product recovered from the culture medium. Alternatively, the product is an intracellular product recovered from harvested cell material. Where the product is poorly soluble, it may be recovered by filtration, and optionally with solvent extraction (e.g., extraction with ethanol). Alternatively, or in addition, the product is recovered by chromatography-based separation, such as liquid chromatography. In some embodiments, the product is recovered by sequential extraction and purification. In still other embodiments, the product is crystallized out of solution.

The production of the desired product can be determined and/or quantified, for example, by gas chromatography (e.g., GC-MS). Production of product, recovery, and/or analysis of the product can be done as described in US 2012/0246767, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. For example, in some embodiments, product oil is extracted from aqueous reaction medium using an organic solvent, such as an alkane such as heptane or dodecane, followed by fractional distillation. In other embodiments, product oil is extracted from aqueous reaction medium using a hydrophobic phase, such as a vegetable oil, followed by organic solvent extraction and fractional distillation. Terpene and terpenoid components of fractions may be measured quantitatively by GC/MS, followed by blending of fractions to generate a desired product profile.

In various embodiments, the recovered terpene or terpenoid is incorporated into a product (e.g., a consumer or industrial product). For example, the product may be a flavor product, a fragrance product, a sweetener, a cosmetic, a cleaning product, a detergent or soap, or a pest control product. For example, in some embodiments, the product recovered comprises nootkatone, and the product is a flavor product selected from a beverage, a chewing gum, a candy, or a flavor additive, or the product is an insect repellant. In some embodiments, the oxygenated product is steviol or a steviol glycoside (e.g., RebM), which is provided as a sweetener, or is incorporated into ingredients, flavors, beverages or food products.

The invention further provides methods of making products such as foods, beverages, texturants (e.g., starches, fibers, gums, fats and fat mimetics, and emulsifiers), pharmaceutical products, tobacco products, nutraceutical products, oral hygiene products, and cosmetic products, by incorporating the terpene or terpenoids produced herein. The higher yields of such species produced in embodiments of the invention can provide significant cost advantages as well as sustainability.

In other aspects, the invention provides bacterial cells, such as E. coli, having one or more genetic modifications that increase products of IPP and DMAPP precursors. In various embodiments, the bacterial cells produce isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) through the MEP pathway, and convert the IPP and DMAPP to a terpene or terpenoid product through a downstream synthesis pathway. The downstream synthesis pathway is generally a recombinant pathway, and may comprise a prenyl transferase, one or more terpene synthases, and optionally one or more P450 enzymes and P450 reductase enzymes (for example, each as described above). For example, the product may be a diterpene or diterpenoid, with the sequential action of a recombinant Type II diterpene synthase (DiTPS) on GGPP followed by a recombinant Type I DiTPS, or alternatively, a single recombinant synthase performs both steps.

Further, to improve MEP carbon available for product biosynthesis, the bacterial strain has one or more of the following genetic modifications:

-   -   (a) overexpression of IspG and IspH enzymes, the IspG and IspH         enzymes having balanced expression to prevent accumulation of         HMBPP intermediate,     -   (b) a recombinant or modified gene encoding an enzyme that         enhances supply and/or transfer of electrons through the MEP         pathway and/or to terpene or terpenoid products, which is         optionally an overexpression of a YdbK gene and optionally with         a non-native fdx and/or fldA homolog,     -   (c) an inactivation or deletion, or reduced expression or         activity, of aceE or aceE enzyme complex, and optionally     -   (d) a recombinant or modified idi gene to tune activity for         higher terpene or terpenoid production.

Genes can be overepxressed by complementation with recombinant genes, or the endogenous genes can be modified to alter expression, as disclosed elsewhere herein.

The bacterial strain is a bacteria selected from Escherichia spp., Bacillus spp., Corynebacterium spp., Rhodobacter spp., Zymomonas spp., Vibrio spp., and Pseudomonas spp. For example, the bacterial strain is a species selected from Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Rhodobacter capsulatus, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Zymomonas mobilis, Vibrio natriegens, or Pseudomonas putida. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain is E. coli.

In various embodiments, upon culturing. HMBPP does not accumulate at more than about 10 mg/g DCW, or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 8 mg/g of DCW, or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 5 mg/g of DCW, or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 4 mg/g DCW, or in some embodiments does not accumulate at more than about 2 mg/g DCW. In some embodiments, HMBPP does not accumulate at more than about 1 mg/g DCW, or does not accumulate at more than about 0.5 mg/g DCW, or more than about 0.2 mg/g DCW, or more than about 0.1 mg/g DCW.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain expresses dxs, ispD, ispF, and idi as recombinant genes (e.g., as a complementation to wild-type MEP pathway enzymes), and which are optionally expressed as an operon. In some embodiments, the bacterial strain expresses dxs, dxr, ispD, ispE, ispF, and idi as recombinant genes, which are optionally expressed as 1, 2, or 3 individual operons. The recombinant genes of the MEP pathway are expressed from one or more plasmids or are integrated into the chromosome, and the expressions are balanced to improve MEP carbon flux. Specifically, the bacterial cell may produce MEcPP as the predominant MEP metabolite in the extracellular medium.

The recombinant IspG and IspH genes may comprise one or more beneficial mutations, or may be an IspG or ispH ortholog having improved properties or activity, as described herein. Further, in various embodiments, the expression of recombinant IspH is higher than the expression of the recombinant IspG, which can optionally be accomplished, at least in-part, by positioning ispH before ispG in an operon. Thus, the bacterial strain may express ispH and ispG from the same operon (with ispH positioned first), and under control of a strong promoter. The recombinant IspG and IspH genes are expressed from a plasmid or are integrated into the chromosome.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain expresses a recombinant idi gene, which is tuned to increase product, optionally by modifying the promoter strength, gene copy number, position in an operon, or ribosome binding site.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain expresses a recombinant YdbK gene, which is integrated into the chromosome or expressed from a plasmid. The bacterial strain may further comprise an overexpression of one or more of a flavodoxin, flavodoxin reductase, ferredoxin, and ferredoxin reductase, such as Clostridium pasteurianum ferredoxin (Cp.fdx). In some embodiments, the strain expresses one or more non-native fdx and/or fldA homologs. By way of example, the fdx homolog may be selected from Hm.fdx1 (Heliobacterium modesticaldum), Pa.fdx (Pseudomonas aeruginosa), Cv.fdx (Allochromatium vinosum), Ca.fdx (Clostridium acetobutylicum), Cp.fdx (Clostridium pasteurianum), Ev2.fdx (Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii), Pp1.fdx (Pseudomonas putida) and Pp2.fdx (Pseudomonas putida). In some embodiments, the fldA homolog includes one or more selected from Ec.fldA (E. coli), Ac.fldA2 (Azotobacter chroococcum), Av.fldA2 (Azotobacter vinelandii), and Bs.fldA (B. subtilis).

In some embodiments, the fdx homologs comprise a sequence that is at least 60% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs. 10 and 15-24. For example, the non-native fdx homologs can comprise a sequence that is at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% identical to any of one of SEQ ID NOs. 10 and 15-24.

In some embodiments, the fldA homologs comprise a sequence that is at least 60% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs. 25-28. For example, the non-native fldA homologs can comprise a sequence that is at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% identical to any of one of SEQ ID NOs. 25-28.

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain has overexpression or complementation with one or more PFOR and/or fpr and, optionally, one or more of a flavodoxin (fldA), flavodoxin reductase, ferredoxin (fdx), and ferredoxin reductase. By way of example, in some embodiments the bacterial strain includes Ec.ydhV (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 33) and Ec.ydhY (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 34); Ec.ydbK (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 9) and Cp.fdx (Clostridium pasteurianum) (SEQ ID NO: 10); Ec.fpr (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 38) and Ec.fdx (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 21); or Ec.fpr (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 38) and Ec.fldA (E. coli) (SEQ ID NO: 27).

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain has overexpression or complementation with one or more PFOR, or a homolog thereof. By way of example, in some embodiments, the PFOR is selected from YdbK (SEQ ID NO: 9), Scy.pfor (Synechocystis sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 29), Ki.pfor (Kluyvera intermedia) (SEQ ID NO: 30), Da.pfor (Desulfovibrio africanus) (SEQ ID NO: 31), Ns.pfor (Nostoc sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 32), Ec.ydhV (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 33), Ga.pfor (Gilliamella apicola) (SEQ ID NO: 35), and Sco.pfor (Synechococcus sp.). In some embodiments, the PFOR is YdbK.

In some embodiments, the PFOR comprise a sequence that is at least 60% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs. 29-35. For example, the PFOR can comprise a sequence that is at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% identical to any of one of SEQ ID NOs. 29-35.

In some embodiments, the overexpression or complementation with PFOR such as, e.g., YdbK, can result in improved performance through expression of electron carriers having a redox potential of about 400 to 550 mV, or in some embodiments, in the range of about 400 to 500 mV, or in the range of about 400 to 475 mV. In some embodiment, the electron carrier is ferrodoxin, flavodoxin, or NADPH. By way of example, in some embodiments, the electron carrier is Cv.fdx (Allochromatium vinosum).

In some embodiments, the bacterial strain has overexpression or complementation with one or more fpr homologs. By way of example, in some embodiments, the fpr homolog is selected from Ns.fpr (Nostoc sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 36), Sco.fpr (Synechococcus sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 37), and Ec.fpr (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 38).

In some embodiments, the fpr comprise a sequence that is at least 60% identical to any one of SEQ ID NOs. 36-38. For example, the fpr can comprise a sequence that is at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 97%, at least about 98%, at least about 99%, or 100% identical to any of one of SEQ ID NOs: 36-38.

In some embodiments, the E. coli contains a deletion of one or more genes selected from: pgrR, mppA, ynaI, insH-4, ynaJ, uspE, fnr, ogt, abgT, abgB, abgA, abgR, mcaS, isrA, smrA, ydaM, ydaN, fnrS, C0343, dbpA, REP115, ttcA, intR, ydaQ, ydaC, ralA, ralR, recT, recE, racC, ydaE, and kilR.

The expression of the recombinant pgpB and/or nudB can be tuned to provide higher product titer, optionally by varying the promoter strength, gene copy number, position in an operon, and/or ribosome binding site. In some embodiments, the recombinant pgpB and/or nudB is expressed under control of a weak or intermediate strength promoter. The recombinant pgpB or nudB is integrated into the chromosome or expressed from a plasmid.

In various embodiments, the bacterial strain produces a terpene or terpenoid product that comprises at least one of Amorphadiene, Artemisinic acid, Artemisinin, Bisabolol, Bisabolene, alpha-Sinensal, beta-Thujone, Camphor, Carveol, Carvone, Cineole, Citral, Citronellal, Cubebol, Farnesene, Geraniol, Limonene, Menthol, Menthone, Myrcene, Nootkatone, Nootkatol, Patchouli, Piperitone, Rose oxide, Sabinene, Steviol, Steviol glycoside (including Rebaudioside D or Rebaudioside M), Taxadiene, Thymol, and Valencene.

Aspects and embodiments of the invention are further demonstrated below with reference to the following Examples.

EXAMPLES Example 1: IspG/IspH Expression Tuning

Conclusions

Overexpression and balancing of MEP pathway genes can result in more carbon entering the MEP pathway, and can shift that carbon ‘downstream’ from DOXP and MEP to MEcPP. Modifying the expression of ispG and/or ispH might further convert MEcPP to HMBPP to IPP.

In fact, increasing expression of both ispG and ispH significantly increased titers of terpene and terpenoid products. However, increasing expression of just ispG or ispH alone did not improve titer. Overexpression of ispG alone resulted in growth defects, and overexpression of ispH alone didn't significantly improve titer, but did convert HMBPP to IPP. The effects of ispG overexpression could be related to the observation that HMBPP is not found extracellularly, but is found 100% intracellularly. Since the molecule does not appear to be transported out of the cell, it may act as a feedback molecule, providing a hard stop on the MEP pathway. For example, if the pool of HMBPP gets above a certain size, the pathway shuts down. Alternatively, or additional, HMBPP may be toxic at certain levels, which is consistent with the observation of the impact on IspG overexpression on cell growth.

Thus, the balance of activity between ispG and ispH is important to prevent HMBPP imbalance and accumulation. In some situations, less is more; that is, strongest overexpression of MEP genes can start to hurt productivity.

In summary, overexpressing ispG and ispH together, where one or both of ispG or ispH are wild-type or mutated/engineered, in a properly balanced configuration, prevents HMBPP accumulation from becoming toxic and pushes carbon through the MEP pathway to IPP, DMAPP, and the downstream terpene and terpenoid products.

Description of Experimental Results

FIG. 2 shows that increasing expression of IspH alone or IspH and IspG together improve terpenoid product titers in production strains that are already engineered to increase the amount of carbon entering the MEP pathway, but ispG alone decreases productivity. In this example, the control strain is an E. coli strain with balanced overexpression of MEP pathway genes (but no additional copies of ispG or ispH), increasing the amount of carbon entering the MEP pathway. As shown, overexpression of IspG decreases product titer about 15%, while overexpression of IspH at the same expression strength increases product titer 17%. Overexpression of both IspG and IspH more than triples product titer.

The data also shows that a ispG/ispH ratio that favors more H enzyme results in even more improved flux through the MEP pathway relative to a strain favoring the ispG side of the ratio. IspG and ispH are expressed here in operon format, and thus the second gene in the operon will have a lower expression level than the first. Thus, ispH/ispG operon showed significantly more product titer than ispG/ispH.

IspG and ispH work sequentially to convert MEcPP to HMBPP, then to IPP. Increasing ispG will accumulate a larger HMBPP pool, while increasing ispH will shrink the HMBPP pool as it is converted to IPP. The fact that IspG alone decreases productivity, while ispH alone increases it, strongly suggests that accumulation of HMBPP has a negative feedback effect on the MEP pathway. When both IspG and IspH are overexpressed, we enhance the rate of both HMBPP formation and consumption, which significantly improves flux through the MEP pathway to the target terpenoid. However, even in this enhanced flux regime, the balance of IspG to IspH is critical, since a slight favoring of ispH over ispG can further improve productivity by 25%, to nearly 4× the titers of a parent strain having wild-type expression of IspG and IspH.

Increasing IspG and/or IspH expression in the modified production strains with enhanced MEP pathways impacts on the MEP product distribution pattern (FIG. 3). The majority of products are DOX, ME, and MEcPP (FIG. 3, upper panel), followed by DOXP and MEP (FIG. 3, middle panel), and HMBPP (FIG. 3, lower panel). In these panels, total extracellular and intracellular metabolites are extracted from cultures (broth plus cells), such that the reported concentration is relative to volume of extract.

Increasing IspG or IspH alone increases the conversion rate of MEcPP and decreases the pool size (upper panel), even though IspH increases product titer and IspG loses product titer. A significant difference between the two variants is however apparent with the HMBPP concentration (lower panel), where IspG alone increases it 2.5× over the control, while IspH alone decreases it 20%. This accumulation of HMBPP could be feeding back on the MEP pathway and shutting down the enhancement of flux. HMBPP accumulates to very low levels (nM concentration), and 100% of it is found intracellularly.

Increasing ispG and ispH expression together, in either operon order, can be seen to enable complete conversion of the remaining DOX, and decreases the ME pool size. Moreover, a IspG/IspH ratio that favors more IspH is capable of improved conversion of MEcPP (and improved product titer) compared to a strain favoring IspG.

The proportion of each individual MEP metabolite found inside or outside the cell (‘Intra’ vs ‘Extra’) is shown in FIG. 4. These values do not reflect absolute abundance, as shown in FIG. 3, there is far more DOX in total that there is HMBPP. While DOX is 100% extracellular, HMBPP is 100% intracellular. The strain profiled here is the ‘Control+ispH/ispG’ top performing strain from FIGS. 2 and 3. DOXP/DOX, MEP/ME, and MEcPP accumulate almost entirely in the extracellular medium, while CDP-ME, CDP-MEP, HMBPP, IPP/DMAPP, and FPP are observed 100% intracelluarly. The percentage of each metabolite found intracellularly is shown at the top of the graph.

Uncompensated ispG upregulation causes a significant drop in cell growth, as determined by UV absorbance at 600 nm (FIG. 5). While some changes to final cell density are observed in a strain compensated with ispH or ispH and ispG together, the variation is not significant.

To determine HMBPP accumulation, HMBPP can be expressed in terms of dry cell weight (DCW). For example, using a strain with balanced ispGH expression:

-   -   [HMBPP]=0.42 ug/mL in 0.35 mL sampled culture     -   [OD600]=12.69     -   Assumption: 1 OD600=0.4 g-DCW/L=0.4 mg-DCW/mL         HMBPP yield=[(0.42 ug/mL)*(0.35 mL)]/[(12.69*0.4 mg-DCW/mL)*0.35         mL)]

In this example, HMBPP=0.0827 ug/mg DCW or 0.0827 mg/g DCW.

Example 2: pgpB and nudB Overexpression

Conclusions

Installing an alternate ‘product’ pull by overexpressing genes such as pgpB and nudB can pull even more flux through the MEP pathway (though to non-target products), or could even replace the various downstream terpenoid pathways to create a tool to engineer a ‘universal chassis’ (i.e., a strain that can have any terpenoid downstream transformed into it and be quickly optimized for commercial production).

Carbon can be pulled through the MEP pathway to create alternate products that will pool outside the cell. PgpB dephosphorylates FPP to farnesol (FOH), and nudB dephosphorylates IPP and DMAPP to isoprenol (3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol) and prenol (3-methyl-2-buten-1-ol), respectively. Enhancing transport of these products outside the cell prevents buildup of IPP, DMAPP, and FPP; which like HMBPP, can feedback and exert control on the MEP pathway. IPP inhibits growth and feedback inhibits Dxs. See Cordoba, Salmi & Leon (2009) J. Exp. Bot. 60, 10, 2933-2943. FPP feedback inhibits IspF-MEP complex, which itself is formed when MEP binds and enhances IspF activity in a feed-forward manner. Bitok & Meyers (2012) ACS Chem. Biol. 2012, 7, 1702-1710. These products accumulate outside the cell and, like the intermediates in the MEP pathway, can be used to track C-flux through the MEP pathway via LC/MS metabolomics quantitation.

By constitutively expressing an additional copy of pgpB, carbon flux through the MEP pathway can be improved, and a slow growth phenotype ameliorated in a strain that has MEP genes overexpressed but no additional downstream pathway to pull all that carbon through to product. In effect, the downstream ‘pull’ becomes the conversion of FPP to farnesol, which is exported outside the cell. Similarly, constitutive expression of nudB should result in IPP and DMAPP pools being increasingly redirected to isoprenol and prenol extracellular products.

Further modulating the expression levels of MEP pathway genes in the presence of overexpressed pgpB or nudB can significantly impact the MEP flux and carbon distribution through the pathway. The increase or decrease in farnesol, prenol, or isoprenol product can be inversely correlated with MEcPP level.

Description of Experimental Results

Overexpression of PgpB can triple farnesol titers in strains engineered to enhance flux through the MEP pathway, but without a downstream terpenoid product pathway installed (FIG. 6). The control strain has additional copies of dxs, dxr, ispD, ispF, ispE, ispG, ispH, and idi under varying levels of constitutive expression, and also has YdbK overexpressed (Example 4). The control accumulates moderate amounts of farnesol, presumably as ‘spill-over’ from too much FPP accumulation, which feeds back on the pathway, and suffers from markedly slower growth compared to wild-type. When PgpB is overexpressed in this strain, the excess FPP is more efficiently converted to farnesol (preventing feedback control) and the flux is effectively pulled through the MEP pathway.

However, too much PgpB expression (the ‘+++’ condition) seems to negatively impact the total flux through to farnesol, with lower titer and smaller fold-change observed, on average. Some potential reasons for this result include: (1) too hard a pull from the PgpB is straining the MEP pathway's ability to keep up with FPP demand, especially from required competing products; or (2) since PgpB is known to dephosphorylate multiple targets in vivo, including an essential membrane phospholipid, a high expression level for PgpB could be having unintended negative consequences on cell health.

Increasing and tuning expression of IspG′ and/or IspH in a strain that produces farnesol can improve product titer (FIG. 7). In this example, the IspG′ enzyme is an engineered version with higher activity than wild-type. The control strain has additional copies of dxs, dxr, ispD, ispF, ispE, ispG, ispH, and idi, as well as additional copies of YdbK and pgpB. Additional copies of ispH and/or ispG′ are integrated into the strains under increasing promoter strength (+, ++, +++).

When IspH is overexpressed (FIG. 7, panel A), no significant change in product titer is observed. While increasing the amount of IspH is going to improve conversion of HMBPP to IPP, there is no additional IspG′ to provide that additional HMBPP. The MEcPP pool mediated by IspG activity becomes the rate-limiting step in the pathway. However, when IspG′ is overexpressed in addition to IspH (FIG. 7, Panel B), we see a significant increase in the farnesol product titer. In this situation, the additional HMBPP enabled by the additional copy of IspG′ is rapidly converted by the increased IspH level to IPP, preventing HMBPP from accumulating and feeding back on the pathway.

It is clear that the balance between IspG and IspH is critical. The data shows IspG/H being expressed in operon format, such that the second gene in the operon will have a lower expression level than the first. When the gene order in the operon for ispG′ and ispH is switched (i.e., ispH+ispG′ versus ispG′+ispH) and thus changing the expression ratio of IspG′/IspH, we see opposite trends in the data. When the ratio favors IspH over IspG′ (B), an increasing promoter strength results in steadily increasing product titer. However, when the ratio favors IspG′ over IspH (C), the excess HMBPP that can be created by this imbalanced pathway steadily accumulates as promoter strength increases, resulting in less and less product improvement and slower growth.

Increase in farnesol product titer can be accompanied by a decrease in MEcPP pool size, though it depends on the ratio of IspG and IspH (FIG. 8). As seen in FIG. 7, additional copies of IspG′ and IspH in farnesol producing strains can improve farnesol product titer up to 2.5-fold. When only IspH is upregulated without additional IspG (FIG. 8, Panel A), titer did not change significantly, nor did MEcPP. MEcPP does decrease moderately, likely due to MEcPP being pulled downstream as HMBPP is more efficiently converted to IPP by the extra IspH enzyme. When relatively more IspH was expressed than IspG′ (FIG. 8, Panel B), as promoter strength increases, farnesol product titer increased. MEcPP conversely decreases as it is consumed by a balanced pathway that distributes the flux to the desired end product.

However, even though a non-optimal ratio favoring IspG′ over IspH can improve MEcPP conversion through HMBPP to IPP and improve farnesol product titer, eventually the imbalance is too severe for the E. coli strain to tolerate and the product improvement disappears, while even more MEcPP accumulates and is trapped in the MEP pathway intermediate carbon pool.

Example 3: Idi Expression Tuning

Conclusions

Idi enzyme catalyzes the reversible isomerization of IPP to DMAPP. Since every desired terpenoid product or undesired MEP side-product (e.g., UPP) uses one DMAPP and varying numbers of IPP, the ratio between the two precursors could have a fundamental impact on strain productivity. For example, 1 FPP=1 DMAPP+2 IPP, whereas 1 UPP=1 FPP+8 IPP (or 1 DMAPP+10 IPP). Therefore, an optimal ratio for FPPS to produce FPP is 2:1 IPP:DMAPP, but 10:1 for UPP. Thus, varying the ratio of IPP:DMAPP by varying idi expression will have an impact on the production of the desired terpenoid relative to other undesired products from the MEP pathway.

Description of Experimental Results

Idi was complemented in different strains producing product A or B. Cells were cultured in 96-round-well culture plates at 37° C. for 48 hrs at 280 RPM in custom media with glucose as carbon source. Idi was expressed from a pBAC under an IPTG-inducible promoter. Strain 1 already has dxs, dxr, ispD, ispF, ispE, idi, FPPS, and YdbK overexpressed, while Strains 2 and 3 further have ispH and a mutant version of IspG overexpressed in addition. Conversely, Strain 4 has the same enzymes overexpressed but under a very different expression regime.

While Idi overexpression increases product titer in a strain that does not overexpress ispGH, it decreases titer in two strains that do, indicating that the balance between IPP and DMAPP controlled by Idi can be tuned up or down depending on the needs of the downstream pathway (FIG. 9). However, Strain 4 more than doubles titer with idi complementation. The same genes are overexpressed in this strain, but the balance between the expression of the MEP genes is very different.

Example 4: YdbK Overexpression

Conclusions

YdbK is predicted to function as a pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase and/or pyruvate synthase. The oxidoreductase is thought to oxidize pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, reducing ferredoxin, which can then supply electrons to the MEP pathway, especially to support the strongly upregulated IspG and IspH enzymes that contain Fe—S clusters. YdbK overexpression has been shown for hydrogen (H2) production (Akhtar M K & Jones P R (2014), Cofactor engineering for enhancing the flux of metabolic pathways.” Frontiers in Bioeng. and Biotech.), but not for terpenoid production.

The product titer of terpene Product A doubled in these strains. The Fe—S clusters are better supported by the extra YdbK cofactor, and their activity improves. Product titer goes up, and when the MEP metabolites are profiled, we see an increased conversion of MEcPP, similar to what is observed when the control strain further adds another copy of ispH-ispG′ operon.

On the other hand, when a Product B strain that didn't have IspG/H overexpressed relative to WT, was complemented with YdbK, the Product B titer went down. When IspG/H was increased in this strain, YdbK complementation did improve Product B titer, suggesting that YdbK expression has to be carefully balanced with IspG/H expression (which, in turn must be carefully balanced for H/G ratio).

Additionally, extra electron-carrying or transferring cofactors were added on top of the YdbK overexpression to see if we can further improve titers. In some experiments, YdbK plus fdx (ferredoxin) from Clostridium pasteurianum improved productivity somewhat.

Description of Experimental Results

An additional copy of E. coli YdbK gene is integrated into chromosome or expressed on a plasmid (specifically a single-copy pBAC, or multi-copy plasmids), under control of constitutive or inducible promoters. Additionally, copies of native or non-native recombinant electron acceptor/donors can also be overexpressed with YdbK, to capitalize on and utilize most efficiently the additional electrons made available for biosynthesis.

Expressing an additional copy of YdbK under increasing promoter strength can improve terpenoid production. In this example, the control strain produces terpenoid product A, and has additional copies of genes dxs, dxr, ispD, ispE, ispF, ispG′, ispH, and idi of the MEP pathway under defined constitutive expression.

In this strain, adding an extra copy of ispH and ispG′ in operon format (such that the H/G′ ratio favors H) further increases the Product A titer, indicating that these steps are limiting (FIG. 10, Panel A). Increasing these Fe—S cluster-containing genes clearly increases the conversion of MEcPP and lowers the concentration observed in culture (FIG. 10, Panel C).

When YdbK is complemented in the control strain, we see a graded response to upregulation, where increasing expression sees increasing terpenoid production, up to a point—moving to stronger expression results in 50% less Product A in the +++ YdbK strain (FIG. 10, Panel B). We see the same conversion of MEcPP occurring for these strains (FIG. 10, Panel D), suggesting that YdbK is supporting enhanced IspG and/or IspH activity. Of note, the MEP metabolite profile of ++ vs +++ strains doesn't change significantly, but has ˜3× less product titer, suggesting that some kind of feedback mechanisms has been activated. Given the observations of work with IspG and IspH, it is possible that this feedback is due to HMBPP accumulation.

The improvement in terpenoid product titer from increasing YdbK expression requires sufficient IspG and/or IspH to be manifested (FIG. 11). In this example, Control A has additional copies of dxs, ispD, ispF, and idi of the MEP pathway, as well as rhyB deletion and isc operon changes. Control B is Control A plus an additional integrated copy of ispG′ and ispH in operon configuration (G′ first, such that the H/G ratio favors G), while Control C is Control A plus an additional integrated copy of ispH and ispG′ in operon configuration (H first, such that the H/G ratio favors H).

In Panel A, we see that complementing YdbK in the absence of IspG/H upregulation decreases terpenoid Product B titer by about 25%. However, when you complement YdbK in strains with additional copies of ispG′-ispH or ispH-ispG′, we observed 18% and 27% improvement in terpenoid titers. Clearly, IspG and IspH must be overexpressed relative to WT MEP pathway to see the benefit of YdbK.

Moreover, this data again highlights how important the expression balance between IspG and IspH can be for MEP pathway flux and terpenoid productivity. In control B vs. C, the same enzymes are upregulated under the same promoter strength—the difference lies in the order of genes in the operon. The genes closest to the promoter will be expressed more strongly than subsequent genes in the operon, such that the H/G enzymes ratio favors IspG in Control B or IspH in Control C. Given this, we observe that a ratio favoring H improves titer more so than one favoring G. Moreover, the improvement made possible by YdbK is enhanced in a strain favoring H. Thus, the balance between IspH and IspG is very important to strain productivity.

Expressing fdx in addition to YdbK can further improve terpenoid titers (FIG. 12). In this example, the control strain produces terpenoid product A, and has additional copies of genes dxs, dxr, ispD, ispE, ispF, ispG′, ispH, and idi of the MEP pathway under defined constitutive expression.

As shown in FIG. 10, expressing an additional copy of YdbK under constitutive expression increases the production of Product A. Complementing was attempted with three additional electron acceptors/donors, fldA, fldA and erpA (each from E. coli), or fdx from Clostridium pasteurianum (which may support 4Fe-4S clusters, as are found in IspG and IspH, rather that 2Fe-2S clusters).

Adding another copy of fldA (flavodoxin) or fldA and erpA (essential respiratory protein A) in addition to YdbK did not further improve Product A titer, but adding Clostridium pasteurianum fdx did improve titers of Product A. Interestingly, while addition of YdbK results in complete conversion of DOX/DOXP downstream to ME/MEP, further adding fldA causes some carbon to pool upstream in the MEP pathway as DOX/DOXP. Adding erpA to the mix restores the profile. However, the MEP metabolite profile for the further enhanced ydbK+fdx strain is most similar to ydbK+fldA, suggesting that optimum MEP flux will result from coordinated balancing of the MEP pathway gene expression as well as expression of critical electron donor/acceptors.

Example 5: Reducing PDH Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl-COA Enhances YdbK Conversion of Pyruvate to Acetyl-COA

Increasing the reliance on YdbK for the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-COA can improve the production of terpenes and/or terpenoid products by the engineered microbial strain because YdbK has a lower redox potential (larger absolute number in Table 4) than the FMN hydroquinone/semiquinone couple in fldA. As such, YdbK is the preferred source of electrons (not fpr/NADPH) by IspG and IspH.

Iron sulfur clusters (e.g., Fe₄S₄) in enzymes (such as IspG and IspH) utilize a wide range of reduction potentials, e.g., −200 to −800 mV. Blachly, et al., Inorganic Chemistry, 54(13): 6439-6461 (2015).

Reduction potentials for charging electron carriers YdbK and fpr are disclosed in Tables 2 and 3, respectively, and reduction potentials for discharging electron carries (e.g., YdbK and fpr) to IspG and IspH are disclosed in Table 4. See McIver, et al., FEBS J, 257(3):577-85 (1998) and Lupton, et al., J Bacteriol, 159: 843-9 (1984).

TABLE 2 Charging Electron Carrier YdbK ΔG⁰ ε⁰ (kcal/mol (mV) pyruvate) YdbK oxidation half reaction: pyruvate + CoA → acetyl-CoA + CO₂ +  540 2H⁺ + 2e⁻ (D. africanus) Potential electron carrier reduction half reactions: 2 oxidized fldA + 2e⁻ + 2H⁺→ −254 −13.2 2 semiquinone fldA 2 fdx 2Fe(III)²⁺ + 2e⁻→ −380 −7.4 2 fdx Fe(III)²⁺Fe(II)¹⁺ 2 semiquinone fldA + 2e⁻ + 2H⁺ → −433 −4.9 2 hydroquinone fldA

TABLE 3 Charging Electron Carrier fpr ΔG⁰ ε⁰ (kcal/mol (mV) NADPH) Step 1 NADPH oxidation half reaction: NADPH→ NADP⁺ + 2e⁻ + H⁺ 320 (370 for NADPH/ NADP+ = 60) Potential fpr reduction half reactions: 2 oxidized fpr + 2e⁻ + 2H⁺ → 2 semiquinone fpr −308 −0.6 2 semiquinone fpr + 2e⁻ + 2H⁺→ 2 hydroquinone fpr −268 −2.4 Step 2 Potential fpr oxidation half reaction: semiquinone fpr → oxidized fpr + e⁻ + H⁺ 308 hydroquinone fpr→ semiquinone fpr + e⁻ + H⁺ 268 Potential electron carrier reduction half reactions: oxidized fldA + e⁻ + HP⁺→ semiquinone fldA −254 −2.5 or −0.6

TABLE 4 Discharging Electron Carriers to IspG and IspH ε⁰ Potential electron carrier oxidation half reactions: (mV) Source 2 semiquinone fldA → 2 oxidized fldA + 2e⁻ + 2H⁺ 254 Fpr, YdbK 2 fdx Fe(III)²⁺Fe(II)¹⁺→ 2 fdx 2Fe(III)²⁺ + 2e⁻ 380 YdbK 2 hydroquinone fldA → 2 semiquinone fldA + 2e⁻ + 433 YdbK 2H⁺

The optimal activity of IspG was tested in vitro by using a range of redox dyes. Xiao, et al., Biochemistry, 48(44): 10483-10485 (2009). The optimal activity of IspG was tested with externally fed methyl viologen (ε⁰=446 mV). The activity of IspG using fed methyl viologen (ε⁰=446 mV) was 20× greater than an in vitro fpr-fldA system.

IspH activity was 50× greater with methyl viologen (ε⁰=446 mV) and 100× greater with the externally fed dithionite-MDQ (ε⁰=490 mV). Xiao, et al., Journal of the American Chemical Society, 131(29): 9931-9933 (2009).

It is hypothesized that the fldA semiquinone/hydroquinone couple that is accessible by YdbK, but not fpr, is the preferable in vivo reduction system for IspG and IspH.

In order to increase a microbial strain's reliance on PFOR (e.g., YdbK) mediated conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-COA, PDH mediated conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-COA was reduced. See FIG. 15.

There are three known reactions in E. coli to convert pyruvate (PYR) to acetyl-CoA (AcCoA): pflB, PDH, and PFOR or YdbK.

Out of the three enzymes, PDH predominates and is a multi-enzyme complex (aceE-aceF-lpd), which consists of 24 subunits of pyruvate dehydrogenase (aceE), 24 subunits of lipoate acetyltransferase (aceF), and 12 subunits of dihydrolipoate dehydrogenase (lpd). The net reaction of the PDH system, in addition to reducing NAD+, is the conversion of pyruvate into AcCoA and CO₂, a key reaction of central metabolism because it links glycolysis I, which generates pyruvate, to the TCA cycle, into which the AcCoA flows. During aerobic growth, PDH is an essential source of AcCoA to feed the TCA cycle and thereby to satisfy the cellular requirements for the precursor metabolites it forms. Mutant strains defective in the PDH complex require an exogenous source of acetate to meet this requirement.

pflB is only active in anaerobic condition. As such, it is not a primary reaction to convert PYR to AcCoA under microaerobic and aerobic conditions.

In microbial strains with at least YdbK overexpression, PDH (see, e.g., Example 4) is no longer essential since YdbK can be used to supply AcCoA. To ensure the PYR to AcCoA step is mainly catalyzed by YdbK, which in turn supplies electrons to IspG and IspH, PDH activity was reduced or eliminated through gene knockouts or knockdowns (e.g., by mutation).

Elimination of PDH Via Knockout of aceE

Four different E. coli strains engineered to produce four different terpenoid products (indicated as Product B, Product C, Product D, and Product E) were further engineered to knockout aceE (ΔaceE), which eliminated PDH activity. Control strains were the same, but without the aceE knockout.

The data shows an increase in titer of each of the four terpenoid products through the deletion of aceE as compared to control. See FIGS. 16A-D. Differences in fold-change improvement can largely be attributed to the biochemical characteristics (e.g., Km and k_(cat)) of the different terpenoid synthase enzymes employed for the downstream pathway. Specifically, enzymes with lower synthase activity compared to the Product D synthase (the most catalytically efficient) had slightly lower fold-change improvements, presumably due to the accumulation of the FPP substrate, which can accumulate and lead to either cell toxicity or feedback regulation on upstream components of the MEP pathway.

The data also shows a reduction in MEcPP concentrations in the extracellular broth (FIG. 16E) as compared to control, which confirms that carbon flux has been pushed through the IspG/H steps into product. See FIG. 1.

Knockdown of PDH Via Mutated aceE

Three E. coli strains, each of which were engineered to produce three different terpenoid products (shown as Product B, Product C, and Product D) were further engineered to express a mutated aceE (G267C; aceE mut), which resulted in reducing PDH activity. Control strains were the same, but did not have a mutated aceE.

Similar to the aceE knockout results, the data shows an increase in titer of each of the three terpenoid products in the microbial strains expressing mutated aceE as compared to control. See FIGS. 17A-C.

The data also shows a reduction in MEcPP concentrations in the extracellular broth (FIG. 17D) as compared to control, which confirms that carbon flux has been pushed through the IspG/H steps into product. See FIG. 1.

Example 6: Non-Native Electron Acceptors/Donors Increase YdbK-Dependent Isoprenoid Production

When YdbK was overexpressed in E. coli, native ferredoxin (fdx) or flavodoxin (fldA) shuttled electrons to IspG and IspH (PYR/YdbK/fldA or fdx). E. coli engineered to produce Product B and overexpress YdbK was further engineered to overexpress one of the following fdx homologs in Table 5 or fldA homologs in Table 6. The first seven fdx homologs are 2[4Fe-4S] ferredoxins meaning they contain two 4Fe-4S iron-sulfur clusters that can have either the same or different redox potentials. For ferredoxin where the clusters differ in redox potential, given the redox potential of YdbK, we anticipate that in most cases cluster 1 will be the relevant cluster. The remaining fdx homologs are a 2Fe-2S ferredoxin and a high potential 4Fe-4S ferredoxin, both of which contain a single cluster. Control E. coli did not express any fdx or fldA homologs.

TABLE 5 Fdx Homologs Clus- Clus- ter 1 ter 2 fdx (mV) (mV) Organism Hm.fdx1 −480 −524 Heliobacterium modesticaldum Pa.fdx −475 −655 Pseudomonas aeruginosa Cv.fdx −467 −640 Allochromatium vinosum Cv.fdx_C57A −451 −590 Synthetic Ec.yfhL −418 −675 E. coli Ca.fdx −400 −400 Clostridium acetobutylicum Cp.fdx −390 −390 Clostridium pasteurianum Ev2.fdx +50 — Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii Pp1.fdx — — Pseudomonas putida Pp2.fdx — — Pseudomonas putida

TABLE 6 FldA Homologs Semi- Hydro- quinone−>oxidized quinone−>semiquinone fldA (mV) (mV) Organism Ac.fldA2 −522 −133 Azotobacter chroococcum Av.fldA2 −483 −187 Azotobacter vinelandii Ec.fldA −433 −254 E. coli Bs.fldA −382 −105 B. subtilis

The data shows that overexpression of certain fdx or fldA homologs in E. coli and overexpress YdbK had increased titers of terpenoid product (Product B in this example) as compared to the empty vector control (emp) (e.g., H.fdx, Cv.fdx, Cv.fdxC57A, and Pa.fdx). FIG. 19A.

E. coli engineered to produce Product D and overexpress YdbK were further engineered to overexpress Cv.fdx. Similar to the previous results, the data shows that overexpression of Cv.fdx in E. coli engineered to produce a terpenoid product (Product D in this example) and overexpress YdbK had increased titers of terpenoid product as compared to control. FIG. 19B. Additionally, the data shows a reduction in MEcPP concentrations in the extracellular broth (FIG. 19C) as compared to control, which confirms that carbon flux has been pushed through the IspG/H steps into product. See FIG. 1.

Example 7: Overexpression or Complementation with PFOR Homologs, for Homologs, and/or Fdx or fldA Homologs

E. coli engineered to produce Product F were further engineered to overexpress at least one PFOR homologs or fpr homologs and, optionally, a fdx or fldA homolog as shown in Table 7.

TABLE 7 Group Homolog SEQ ID NO(s) 1 Scy.pfor (Synechocystis sp.) SEQ ID NO: 29 2 Ki.pfor (Kluyvera intermedia) SEQ ID NO: 30 3 Da.pfor (Desulfovibrio africanus) SEQ ID NO: 31 4 Sco.pfor (Synechococcus sp.) — 5 Ec.ydhV and Ec.ydhY (E. Coli) SEQ ID NO: 33 and SEQ ID NO: 34 6 Ga.pfor (Gilliamella apicola) SEQ ID NO: 35 7 Ec.ydbK (E. Coli) SEQ ID NO: 9 8 Ec.ydbK and Cp.fdx (E. Coli and SEQ ID NO: 9 and 10 C. pasteurianum) 9 Ns.fpr (Nostoc sp.) SEQ ID NO: 36 10 Sco.fpr (Synechococcus sp.) SEQ ID NO: 37 11 Ec.fpr and Ec.fdx (E. Coli) SEQ ID NO: 38 and SEQ ID NO: 21 12 Ec.fpr and Ec.fldA (E. Coli) SEQ ID NO: 38 and SEQ ID NO: 27

The data shows that some bacterial strains engineered to express PFOR and fpr homologs had increased titers of terpenoid product (Product F in this example) as compared to empty vector control (CTRL) (e.g., Da.pfor (Desulfovibrio africanus) (SEQ ID NO: 31); Sco.pfor (Synechococcus sp.); Ga.pfor (Gilliamella apicola) (SEQ ID NO: 35); Ec.ydbk (E. Coli) (SEQ ID NO: 9); and Sco.fpr (Synechococcus sp.) (SEQ ID NO: 37). See FIG. 20.

The data also shows that bacterial strains engineered to overexpress at least one PFOR homolog and a fdx had increased titers of terpenoid product (Product F) as compare to empty vector control (CTRL) (e.g., Ec.ydhV/Ec.ydhY; E. coli (SEQ ID NO: 33 and SEQ ID NO: 34, respectively) and Ec.ydbKlCp.fdx; E. coli (SEQ ID NO: 9 and 10, respectively)). See FIG. 20.

Additionally, the data shows that bacterial strains engineered to overexpress at least one fpr homologs and either fdx or fldA had increased titers of terpenoid product (Product F) as compare to empty vector control (CTRL) (e.g., Ec.fpr/Ec.fdx; E. coli (SEQ ID NO: 38 and SEQ ID NO: 21, respectively) and Ec.fpr/Ec.fldA; E. coli (SEQ ID NO: 38 and SEQ ID NO: 27, respectively)). See FIG. 20.

SEQUENCES SEQ ID NO: 1 (E. coli IspG) MHNQAPIQRRKSTRIYVGNVPIGDGAPIAVQSMTNTRTTDVEATVNQIKALERVG ADIVRVSVPTMDAAEAFKLIKQQVNVPLVADIHFDYRIALKVAEYGVDCLRINPG NIGNEERIRMVVDCARDKNIPIRIGVNAGSLEKDLQEKYGEPTPQALLESAMRHVD HLDRLNFDQFKVSVKASDVFLAVESYRLLAKQIDQPLHLGITEAGGARSGAVKSAI GLGLLLSEGIGDTLRVSLAADPVEEIKVGFDILKSLRIRSRGINFIACPTCSRQEFDVI GTVNALEQRLEDIITPMDVSIIGCVVNGPGEALVSTLGVTGGNKKSGLYEDGVRK DRLDNNDMIDQLEARIRAKASQLDEARRIDVQQVEK SEQ ID NO: 2 (E. coli IspH) MQILLANPRGFCAGVDRAISIVENALAIYGAPIYVRHEVVHNRYVVDSLRERGAIFI EQISEVPDGAILIFSAHGVSQAVRNEAKSRDLTVFDATCPLVTKVHMEVARASRRG- EESILIGHAGHPEVEGTMGQYSNPEGGMYLVESPDDVWKLTVKNEEKLSFMTQTT LSVDDTSDVIDALRKRFPKIVGPRKDDICYATTNRQEAVRALAEQAEVVLVVGSK NSSNSNRLAELAQRMGKRAFLIDDAKDIQEEWVKEVKCVGVTAGASAPDILVQN VVARLQQLGGGEAIPLEGREENIVFEVPKELRVDIREVD SEQ ID NO: 3 (E. coli Dxs) MSFDIAKYPTLALVDSTQELRLLPKESLPKLCDELRRYLLDSVSRSSGHFASGLGT VELTVALHYVYNTPFDQLIWDVGHQAYPHKILTGRRDKIGTIRQKGGLHPFPWRG ESEYDVLSVGHSSTSISAGIGIAVAAEKEGKNRRTVCVIGDGAITAGMAFEAMNHA GDIRPDMLVILNDNEMSISENVGALNNHLAQLLSGKLYSSLREGGKKVFSGVPPIK ELLKRTEEHIKGMVVPGTLFEELGFNYIGPVDGHDVLGLITTLKNMRDLKGPQFLH IMTKKGRGYEPAEKDPITFHAVPKFDPSSGCLPKSSGGLPSYSKIFGDWLCETAAK DNKLMAITPAMREGSGMVEFSRKFPDRYFDVAIAEQHAVTFAAGLAIGGYKPIVAI YSTFLQRAYDQVLHDVAIQKLPVLFAIDRAGIVGADGQTHQGAFDLSYLRCIPEM VIMTPSDENECRQMLYTGYHYNDGPSAVRYPRGNAVGVELTPLEKLPIGKGIVKR RGEKLAILNFGTLMPEAAKVAESLNATLVDMRFVKPLDEALILEMAASHEALVTV EENAIMGGAGSGVNEVLMAHRKPVPVLNIGLPDFFIPQGTQEEMRAELGLDAAG MEAKIKAWLA SEQ ID NO: 4 (E. coli Dxr) MKQLTILGSTGSIGCSTLDVVRHNPEHFRVVALVAGKNVTRMVEQCLEFSPRYAV MDDEASAKLLKTMLQQQGSRTEVLSGQQAACDMAALEDVDQVMAAIVGAAGL LPTLAAIRAGKTILLANKESLVTCGRLFMDAVKQSKAQLLPVDSEHNAIFQSLPQPI QHNLGYADLEQNGVVSILLTGSGGPFRETPLRDLATMTPDQACRHPNWSMGRKIS VDSATMMNKGLEYIEARWLFNASASQMEVLIHPQSVIHSMVRYQDGSVLAQLGE PDMRTPIAHTMAWPNRVNSGVKPLDFCKLSALTFAAPDYDRYPCLKLAMEAFEQ GQAATTALNAANEITVAAFLAQQIRIFTDIAALNLSVLEKMDMREPQCVDDVLSVD ANAREVARKEVMRLAS SEQ ID NO: 5 (E. coli IspD) MATTHLDVCAVVPAAGFGRRMQTECPKQYLSIGNQTILEHSVHALLAHPRVKRV VIAISPGDSRFAQLPLANHPQITVVDGGDERADSVLAGLKAAGDAQWVLVHDAA RPCLHQDDLARLLALSETSRTGGILAAPVRDTMKRAEPGKNAIAHTVDRNGLWH ALTPQFFPRELLHDCLTRALNEGATITDEASALEYCGFHPQLVEGRADNIKVTRPE DLALAEFYLTRTIHQENT SEQ ID NO: 6 (E. coli IspE) MRTQWPSPAKLNLFLYITGQRADGYHTQTLFQFLDYGDTISIELRDDGDIRLLTP VEGVEHEDNLIVRAARLLMKTAADSGRLPTGSGANISIDKRLPMGGGLGGGSSNA ATVLVALNHLWQCGLSMDELAEMGLTLGADVPVFVRGHAAFAEGVGEILTPVDP PEKWYLVAHPGVSIPTPVIFKDPELPRNTPKRSIETLLKCEFSNDCEVIARKRFREVD AVLSWLLEYAPSRLTGTGACVFAEFDTESEARQVLEQAPEWLNGFVAKGANLSPL HRAML SEQ ID NO: 7 (E. coli IspF) MRIGHGFDVAFGGEGPIIIGGVRIPYEKGLLAHSDGDVALHALTDALLGAAALG DIGKLFPDTDPAFKGADSRELLREAWRRIQAKGYTLGNVDVTIIAQAPKMLPHIPQ MRVFIAEDLGCHMDDVNVKATTTEKLGFTGRGEGIACEAVALLIKATK SEQ ID NO: 8 (E. coli Idi) MQTEHVILLNAQGVPTGTLEKYAAHTADTRLHLAFSSWLFNAKGQLLVTRRALS KKAWPGVWTNSVCGHPQLGESNEDAVIRRCRYELGVEITPPESIYPDFRYRATDPS GIVENEVCPVFAARTTSALQINDDEVMDYQWCDLADVLHGIDATPWAFSPWMV MQATNREARKRLSAFTQLK SEQ ID NO: 9 (E. coli YdbK) MITIDGNGAVASVAFRTSEVIAIYPITPSSTMAEQADAWAGNGLKNVWGDTPRVV EMQSEAGAIATVHGALQTGALSTSFTSSQGLLLMIPTLYKLAGELTPFVLVHVAART VATHALSIFGDHSDVMAVRQTGCAMLCAANVQEAQDFALISQIATLKSRVPFIHFF DGFRTSHEINKIVPLADDTILDLMPQVEIDAHRARALNPEHPVIRGTSANPDTYFQS REATNPWYNAVYDHVEQAMNDFSAATGRQYQPFEYYGHPQAERVIILMGSAIGT CEEVVDELLTRGEKVGNVKVRLYRPFSAKHLLQALPGSVRSVAVLDRTKEPGAQA EPLYLDVMTALAEAFNNGERETLPRVIGGRYGLSSKEFGPDCVLACFAELNAAKP KARFTVGIYDDVTNLSLPLPENTLPNSAKLEALFYGLGSDGSVSATKNNIKIIGNST PWYAQGYFVYDSKKAGGLTVSHLRVSEQPIRSAYLISQADFVGCHQLQFIDKYQM AERLKPGGIFLLNTPYSADEVWSRLPQEVQAVLNQKKARFYVINAAKIARECGLA ARINTVMQMAFFHLTQILPGDSALAELQGAIAKSYSSKGQDLVERNWQALALARE SVEEVPLQPVNPHSANRPPVVSDAAPDFVKTVTAAMLAGLGDALPVSALPPDGT WPMGTTRWEKRNIAEEIPIWKEELCTQCNHCVAACPHSAIRAKVVPPEAMENAPA SLHSLDVKSRDMRGQKYVLQVAPEDCTGCNLCVEVCPAKDRQNPEIKAINMMSR LEHVEEEKINYDFFLNLPEIDRSKLERIDIRTSQLITPLFEYSGACSGCGETPYIKLLT QLYGDRMLIANATGCSSIYGGNLPSTPYTTDANGRGPAWANSLFEDNAEFGLGFR LTVDQHRVRVLRLLDQFADKIPAELLTALKSDATPEVRREQVAALRQQLNDVAEA HELLRDADALVEKSIWLIGGDGWAYDIGFGGLDHVLSLTENVNILVLDTQCYSNT GGQASKATPLGAVTKFGEHGKRKARKDLGVSMMMYGHVYVAQISLGAQLNQTV KAIQEAEAYPGPSLIIAYSPCEEHGYDLALSHDQMRQLTATGFWPLYRFDPRRADE GKLPLALDSRPPSEAPEETLLHEQRFRRLNSQQPEVAEQLWKDAAADLQKRYDFL AQMAGKAEKSNTD SEQ ID NO: 10 (Clostridium pasteurianum fdx; Cp.fdx) MAYKIADSCVSCGACASECPVNAISQGDSIFVIDADTCIDCGNCANVCPVGAPVQE SEQ ID NO: 11 (E. coli PgpB) MRSIARRTAVGAALLLVMPVAVWISGWRWQPGEQSWLLKAAFWVTETVTQPWG VITHLILFGWFLWCLRFRIKAAFVLFAILAAAILVGQGVKSWIKDKVQEPRPFVIWL EKTHHIPVDEFYTLKRAERGNLVKEQLAEEKNIPQYLRSHWQKETGFAFPSGHTM FAASWALLAVGLLWPRRRTLTIAILLVWATGVMGSRLLLGMHWPRDLVVATLIS WALVAVATWLAQRICGPLTPPAEENREIAQREQES SEQ ID NO: 12 (E. coli NudB) MKDKVYKRPVSILVVIYAQDTKRVLMLQRRDDPDFWQSVTGSVEEGETAPQAAM REVKEEVTIDVVAEQLTLIDCQRTVEFEIFSHLRHRYAPGVTRNTESWFCLALPHE RQIVFTEHLAYKWLDAPAAAALTKSWSNRQAIEQFVINAA SEQ ID NO: 13 (E. coli Shine Dalgarno sequence) AGGAGG SEQ ID NO: 14 (Methanococcus maripaludis GAPOR) MNILIDGSRQNYEELEESEFPISFGINLHTKQETWKYDAFDEKNLFCFGKGILPIIGG HRLIFSFRSPLWDGFHFSAMGGAGYTFKDTGIQNVAITGKCEVPTVIVLNGEEDKL KIEFMPFTEEITDIYEFNDKIIDLFKEKNYRAFLVGPASKTTNMGGIYSQTIRNGKIV EGSEDWAARGGGGSVLYQAHNVLGVVFFGKKTPEKNLKEIVEEHYNKPYTKVVL EHTEKYRYSEEKKTGGTFGNNYHVTMELTPVFNWRMPFIDKNKRMKLHKKIIEYF VNRFDEEAIETKNWTNCGEPCPVVCKKYRKGLHVDYEPYEANGPCIGVFDIYAAD KVVHTIDKLGFDAIEFGNLCSWTFELLDNGMLKPEEVGIEKPVFDISNFENDEDILK NSMHNAEQAVKLAEIIAFQTNEFGKICKSGTRRAGKILNEKYPDRIKDKKFEDFGV YDSFGERGQISPTMYWAIGNFMPYLIQGKYLTHYQCGVFLEPEELAELSVKNSIEEI TLENLGICRFHRKWVTPIIEKLVKEMSDVNLNEESMELFKKIAKYDSNIGCPEMES ERVKELIIAGAFEFENEKWSKEFENGNFDEYIKRVLEKYSELLEIDWKLKE SEQ ID NO: 15 (Heliobacterium modesticaldum, Hm.fdx1) MAYKITDACTACGACMDGCCVGAIVEGKKYSITSDCVDCGVCADKCPVDAIIPG SEQ ID NO: 16 (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pa.fdx) MSLKITDDCINCDVCEPECPNGAISQGEEIYVIDPNLCTECVGHYDEPQCQQVCPV DCIPLDDANVESKDQLMEKYRKITGKA SEQ ID NO: 17 (Allochromatium vinosum, Cv.fdx) MALMITDECINCDVCEPECPNGAISQGDETYVIEPSLCTECVGHYETSQCVEVCPV DCIIKDPSHEETEDELRAKYERITGEG SEQ ID NO: 18 (Cv.fdx_C57A) MALMITDECINCDVCEPECPNGAISQGDETYVIEPSLCTECVGHYTTSQCVEVCPV DAIIKDPSHEETEDELRAKYERITGEG SEQ ID NO; 19 (E. coli, Ec.yfhL) MALLITKKCINCDMCEPECPNEAISMGDHIYEINSDKCTECVGHYETPTCQKVCPIP NTIVKDPAHVETEEQLWDKFVLMHHADKI SEQ ID NO: 20 (Clostridium acetobutylicum, Ca.fdx) MAYKITDACVSCGSCASECPVSAISQGDTQFVIDADTCIECGNCANVCPVGAPVQE SEQ ID NO: 21 (E. coli, Ec.fdx) MPKIVILPHQDLCPDGAVLEANSGETILDAALRNGIEIEHACEKSCACTTCHCIVRE GFDSLPESSEQEDDMLDKAWGLEPESRLSCQARVTDEDLVVEIPRYTINHAREH SEQ ID NO: 22 (Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii, Ev2.fdx) MERLSEDDPAAQALEYRHDASSVQHPAYEEGQTCLNCLLYTDASAQDWGPCSVF PGKLVSANGWCTAWVAR SEQ ID NO: 23 (Pseudomonas putida, Pp1.fdx) MSLIITDDCINCDVCEPECPNAAISQGEEIYVIDPNLCTQCVGHYDEPQCQQVCPVD CIPLDEAHPETHDELMEKYKRITGKA SEQ ID NO: 24 (Pseudomonas putida, Pp2.fdx) MSLIITDDCINCDVCEPECPNEAISQGEEIYVDPNLCTQCVGHYDEPQCQQVCPVD CIPLDEAHPETEEELMAKYRRIT SEQ ID NO: 25 (Azotobacter vinelandii fldA2; Av.fldA2) MAKIGLFFGSNTGKTRKVAKSIKKIRFDDETMSDALNVNRVSAEDFAQYQFLILGT PTLGEGELPGLSSDCENESWEEFLPKIEGLDFSGKTVALFGLGDQVGYPENYLDAL GELYSFFKDRGAKIVGSWSTDGYEFESSEAVVDGKFVGLALDLDNQSGKTDERVA AWLAQIAPEFGLSL SEQ ID NO: 26 (Azotobacter chroococcum fldA2; Ac.fldA2) MAKIGLFFGSNTGKTRKVAKSIKKRFDDETMSDAVNVNRVSAEDFAQYQFLILGT PTLGEGELPGLSSDCENESWEEFLPKIEGLDFSGKTVALFGLGDQVGYPENFLDAM GELHSFFTERGAKVVGAWSTDGYEFEGSTAVVDGKFVGLALDLDNQSGKTDERV AAWLAQIAPEFGLSL SEQ ID NO: 27 (E. coli, Ec.fldA) MAITGIFFGSDTGNTENIAKMIQKQLGKDVADVHDIAKSSKEDLEAYDILLLGIPT WYYGEAQCDWDDFFPTLEEIDFNGKLVALFGCGDQEDYAEYFCDALGTIRDIIEPR GATIVGHWPTAGYHFEASKGLADDDHFVGLAIDEDRQPELTAERVEKWVKQISEE LHLDEILNA SEQ ID NO: 28 (B. subtilis, Bs.fldA) MAKALITYASMSGNTEDIAFIIKDTLQEYELDIDCVEINDMDASCLTSYDYVLIGTY TWGDGDLPYEAEDFFEEVKQIQLNGLKTACFGSGDYSYPKFCEAVNLFNVMLQE AGAAVYQETLKIELAPETDEDVESCRAFARGFLAWADYMNKEKIHVS SEQ ID NO: 29 (Synechocystis sp., Scy.pfor) MSLPTYATLDGNEAVARVAYLLSEVIAIYPITPSSPMGEWSDAWAAEHRPNLWGT VPLVVEMQSEGGAAGTVHGALQSGALTTTFTASQGLMLMLPNMHKIAGELTAM VLHVAARSLAAQGLSIFGDHSDVMAARNTGFAMLSSNSVQEAHDFALIATATSFA TRIPGLHFFDGFRTSHEEQKIELLPQEVLRGLIKDEDVLAHRGRALTPDRPKLRGTA QNPDVYFQARETVNPFYASYPNVLEQVMEQFGQLTGRHYRPYEYCGHPEAERVI VLMGSGAETAQETVDFLTAQGEKVGLLKVRLYRPFAGDRLVNALPKTVQKIAVL DRCKEPGSIGEPLYQDVLTAFFEAGMMPKIIGGRYGLSSKEFTPAMVKGVLDHLN QTNPKNHFTVGINDDLSHTSIDYDPSFSTEADSVVRAIFYGLGSDGTVGANKNSIKI IGEDTDNYAQGYFVYDSKKSGSVTVSHLRFGPNPILSTYLISQANFVACHQWEFLE QFEVLEPAVDGGVFLVNSPYGPEEIWREFPRKVQQEIIDKNLKVYTINANDVARDA GMGRRTNTVMQTCFFALAGVLPREEAIAKIKQSVQKTYGKKGQEIVEMNIKAVDS TLAHLYEVSVPETVSDDAPAMRPVVPDNAPVFVREVLGKIMARQGDDLPVSALPC DGTYPTATTQWEKRNVGHEIPVWDPDVCVQCGKCKCVIVCPHAVIRGKVYEEAELA NAPVSFKFTNAKDHDWQGSKFTIQVAPEDCTGCGICVDVCPAKNKSQPRLRAINM APQLPLREQERENWDFFLDLPNPDRLSLNLNKISHQQMQEPLFEFSGACAGCGETP YLKLVSQLFGDRMLVANATGCSSIYGGNLPTTPWAQNAEGRGPAWSNSLFEDNA EFGLGFRVAIDKQTEFAGELLKTFAGELGDSLVSEILNNAQTTEADIFEQRQLVEQ VKQRLQNLETPQAQMFLSVADYLVKKSVWIIGGDGWAYDIGYGGLDHVLASGR NVNILVMDTEVYSNTGGQASKATPRAAVAKFAAGGKPSPKKDLGLMAMTYGNV YVASIAMGAKNEQSIKAFMEAEAYPGVSLIIAYSHCIAHGINMTTAMNHQKELVD SGRWLLYRYNPLLADEGKNPLQLDMGSPKVAIDKTVYSENRFAMLTRSQPEEAK RLMKLAQGDVNTRWAMYEYLAKRSLGGEINGNNHGVSPSPEVIAKSV SEQ ID NO: 30 (Kluyvera intermedia, Ki.pfor) MSGKMKTMDGNAAAAWISYAFTDVAAIYPITPSTPMAENVDEWTAQGKKNLFG QPVRLMEMQSEAGAAGAVHGALQAGALTTTYTASQGLLLMIPNLYKIAGELLPG VFHVSARALATNSLNIFGDHQDVMAVRQTGCAMLAENNVQQVMDLSAVAHLSA IKGRVPFINFFDGFRTSHEIQKIEVLEHEALAPLLDQEALNLFRRNALNPDHPVIRGT AQNPDIYFQEREASNRFYQALPDIVEGYMAEIYRITGREYHLFDYYGSPDAEQIIIIA MGSVCDTIQEVVDAMIDSGEKVGLVSVHLFRPFSLAHFMAKIPASVKRIAVLDRT KEPGAQAEPLCLDVKNAFYHHDNPPLIVGGRYALGGKDVLPGHIVSVNFENLKKPL PMDGFTVGIFDDVTHTSLPVPAYDIHVSREGITACKFWGLGSDGTVSANKNAIKIIG DNTSMFAQAYFAYDSKKSGGITMSHLRFGKRPITSPYLIHNADFIACSQQSYVDKY DLLDGINPGGIFLLNCTWFGEEVERHLPNKMKRIIARQGVRFYTLNAVDIARKLGL GGRFNMLMQAAFFKLTDIIDAKTASEHLKKAVAKSYGSKGQNVVDMNNAAIDLG MDALQEIIVPDHWAYVEEEANNDGKLMPDFIRNILEPMNRQNGDKLPVSAFLGME DGTFPPGTAAWEKRGIAMQVPVWQPEGCTQCNQCAFICPHAAIRPALLSSEEREA APVALLSKVAQGAKHYEYHLAVSPLDCSGCGNCVDICPSKGKALAMKPLDSQRH MVPVWDHALALAPKENPFSKATVKGCQFEPPLLEFSGACAGCGETPYARLITQLF GDRMMIANATGCSSIWGASAPSIPWTTNHKGQGPAWANSLFEDNAEFGLGMMLG GRAIREQLASDAASVLERPLHPDLQQALRDWLEHKDLGEGTRARAEKLSALLAAE KGDDDLLNRLYQNQDYFTKRSQWIFGGDGWAYDIGFGGLDHVLASGEDVNILVF DTEVYSNTGGQSSKSTPVAAIAKFAAEGKRTRKKDLGMMAVSYGNVYVAQVAM GADKAQTLRAIAEAEAWPGPSLVIAYAACINHGLKAGMGRSISEAKRAVEAGYW HLWRYNPQLLAKGKNPFILDSEEPEESFRDFLMGEVRYASLGRTSPEVADSLFAQT EQDAKDRYAQYRRLAGE SEQ ID NO: 31 (Desulfovibrio africanus, Da.pfor) MGKKMMTTDGNTATAHVAYAMSEVAAIYPITPSSTMGEEADDWAAQGRKNIFG QTLTIREMQSEAGAAGAVHGALAAGALTTTFTASQGLLLMIPNMYKISGELLPGV FHVTARAIAAHALSIFGDHQDIYAARQTGFAMLASSSVQEAHDMALVAHLAAIES NVPFMHFFDGFRTSHEIQKIEVLDYADMASLVNQKALAEFRAKSMNPEHPHVRGT AQNPDIYFQGREAANPYYLKVPGIVAEYMQKVAALTGRSYKLFDYVGAPDAERV IVSMGSSCETIEEVINHLAAKGDKIGLIKVRLYRPFVSEAFFAALPASAKVITVLDRT KEPGAPGDPLYLDVCSAFVERGEAMPKILAGRYGLGSKEFSPAMVKSVYDNMSG AKKNHFTVGIEDDVTGTSLPVDNAFADTTPKGTIQCQFWGLGADGTVGANKQAI KIIGDNTDLFAQGYFSYDSKKSGGITISHLRFGEKPIQSTYLYNRADYVACHNPAY VGIYDILEGIKDGGTFVLNSPWSSLEDMDKHLPSGIKRTIANKKLKFYNIDAVKIAT DVGLGGRINMIMQTAFFKLAGVLPFEKAVDLLKKSIHKAYGKKGEKIVKMNTDA VDQAVTSLQEFKYPASWKDAPAETKAEPKTNEFFKNVVKPILTQQGDKLPVSAFE ADGRFPLGTSQFEKRGVAINVPQWVPENCIQCNQCAFVCPHSAILPVLAKEEELVG APANFTALEAKGKELKGYKFRIQINTLDCMGCGNCADICPPKEKALVMQPLDTQR DAQVPNLEYAARIPVKSEVLPRDSLKGSQFQEPLMEFSGACSGCGETPYVRVITQL FGERMFIANATGCSSIWGASAPSMPYKTNSLGQGPAWGNSLFEDAAEYGFGMNM SMFARRTHLADLAAKALESDASGDVKEALQGWLAGKNDPIKSKEYGDKLKKLLA GQKDGLLGQIAAMSDLYTKKSVWIFGGDGWAYDIGYGGLDHVLASGEDVNVFV MDTEVYSNTGGQSSKATPTGAVAKFAAAGKRTGKKDLARMVMTYGYVVVATV SMGYSKQQFLKVLKEAESFPGPSLVIAYATCINQGLRKGMGKSQDVMNTAVKSG YWPLFRYDPRLAAQGKNPFQLDSKAPDGSVEEFLMAQNRFAVLDRSFPEDAKRL RAQVAHELDVRFKELERMAATNIFESFAPAGGKADGSVDFGEGAEFCTRDDTPM MARPDSGEACDQNRAGTSEQQGDLSKRTKK SEQ ID NO. 32 (Nostoc sp., Ns.pfor) MSQTFATIDGNEAVARVAYKLNEVIAIYPITPSSAMGEWADAWMAEGRPNLWGT VPSVVQMQSEGGAAGAVHGALQTGSLSTTFTASQGLLLMIPNLYKIGGELTSMVV HVAARSLATHALSIFGDHSDVMAARGTGFAMLCSASVQESHDFALIAHAATLDTR VSFLHFFDGFRTSHEVQKVELLADDDVRSLINEDKIFAHRARALTPDSPLLRGTAQ NPDVFFQAREGANPYYNACPAIVQGIMDKFGERTGRYYQIYEYHGASDADRLIILM GSGCETVHETVDYLNARGEKVGVLKVRLFRPWDVERFVQALPHSVQAIAVLDRT KEPGSAGEPLYQDVVTAIHEGWVNKNNSPVPSPQSPVPKIIGGRYGLSSKEFTPAM VKAVFDNLAQATPKNHFTIGINDDVTHTSLEYDPSFSTEPDNVVRAMFYGLGSDG TVGANKNSIKIIGEGGTDNYAQGYFVYDSKKSGSMTVSHLRFGSQPIRSTYLIDQAN FIGCHHWGFLERIEVLNAAAHGATILLNSPYNAATVWENLPLKVRLQILDKQLKL YVINANQVARDSGMGGRIMTIMQVCFFALAGVLPEVQAIAKIKQAIEKTYGKKGV EVVRMNLQAVDQTLENLHEVKIPIEEKGKWIDEEALLSNQSPFSTSAPKFVRDVLG KIMVWQGDDLPVSTLPPDGTFPTGTAKWEKRNVAQEIPVWDTDICVQCSKCVMV CPHAAIRAKVYQPSELENAPPTFKSVDAKDRDFANQKFTIQVAPEDCTGCAICVNV CPAKNKSEPSLKAINMANQLPLREQERDNWDFFLNLPNPDRRNLKLNQIRQQQLQ EPLFEFSGACAGCGETPYVKLLTQLFGDRSVIANATGCSSIYGGNLPTTPWTKNND GRGPAWSNSLFEDNAEFGFGYRLSLDKQAEFAAELLQQFSTEVGDNLVDSILKAP QKTEADIWEQRQRIELLKQQLDKIPTFDPNLKSKIQNLKSLADYLVKKSVWIIGGD GWAYDIDFGGIDHVIASGRNVNILVMDTEVTYSNTGGQSSKATPKAAVAKFAASG KPAQKKDMGLMAMNYGNVYVASVALGAKDDQTLKAFLEAEAFDGPSIIIAYSHC IAHGINMTTGMNQQKALVESGRWLLYRYNPLLQEQGKNPLQLDMRSPTQSVEQS MYQENRFKMLTKSKPEVAKQLLEQAQAEVDARWQMYQYLASR SEQ ID NO: 33 (E. coli, Ec.ydhV) MANGWTGNILRVNLTTGNITLEDSSKFKSFVGGMGFGYKIMYDEVPPGTKPFDEA NKLVFATGPLTGSGAPCSSRVNITSLSTFTKGNLVVDAHMGGFFAAQMKFAGYDV IIIEGKAKSPVWLKIKDDKVSLEKADFLWGKGTRATTEEICRLTSPETCVAAIGQAG ENLVPLSGMLNSRNHSGGAGTGAIMGSKNLKAIAVEGTKGVNIADRQEMKRLND YMMTELIGANNNHVVPSTPQSWAEYSDPKSRWTARKGLFWGAAEGGPIETGEIPP GNQNTVGFRTYKSVFDLGPAAEKYTVKMSGCHSCPIRCMTQMNIPRVKEFGVPST GGNTCVANFVHTTIFPNGPKDFEDKDDGRVIGNLVGLNLFDDYGLWCNYGQLHR DFTYCYSKGVFKRVLPAEETAEIRWDQLEAGDVNFIKDFYYRLAHRVGELSHLAD GSYAIAERWNLGEEYWGYAKNKLWSPFGYPVHHANEASAQVGSIVNCMFNRDC MTHTHINFIGSGLPLKLQREVAKELFGSEDAYDETKNYTPINDAKIKYAKWSLLRV CLHNAVTLCNWVWPMTVSPLKSRNYRGDLALEAKFFKAITGEEMTQEKLDLAAE RIFTLHRAYTVKLMQTKDMRNEHDLICSWVFDKDPQIPVFTEGTDKMDRDDMHA SLTMFYKEMGWDPQLGCPTRETLQRLGLEDIAADLAAHNLLPA SEQ ID NO: 34 (E. coli, Ec.ydhY) MNPVDRPLLDIGLTRLEFLRISGKGLAGLTIAPALLSLLGCKQEDIDSGTVGLINTPK GVLVTQRARCTGCHRCEISCTNFNDGSVGTFFSRIKIHRNYFFGDNGVGSGGGLYG DLNYTADTCRQCKEPQCMNVCPIGAITWQQKEGCITVDHKRCIGCSACTTACPW MMATVNTESKKSSKCVLCGECANACPTGALKIIEWKDITV SEQ ID NO: 35 (Gilliamella apicola, Ga.pfor) MIISDANSAVSSVAYRANEVIAIYPITPSSSMAEQASTWAEFDKPNVFGDIPRVVEM QSEAGAIATVHGALMTGALATSFTSSQGLLLMIPSLYKIAGELTPFVLHVAARTVA THALSIFGDHSDVMSVRQTGFAMLCSSSVQEAQDLALISQIASFKSRIPFVHFFDGF RTSHEVNKIYPLSDEDIHDLLPHEAIKAYRSRALTPDKPMIRGTSANPDTYFQCREA INSYYDNAYQHVVDAMTDFEKQTGRKYQPFEYYGASDAERIIVIMGSGASTSKEV IDYLLKENQKVGVVIVRLFRPFSAQHLLAVIPDSVKKIAVLDRTKEPGAQAEPLYL DIMTAFAESLSRGERNTIPQTVGGRYGLSSKEFDPRSVLGIFNELSLEKPRPRFTVGI YDDITGLSLPLPDKTIPQKSALEALFYGLGSDGTVSATKNNIKIIGDSSPFYVQGYFV YDSKKAGGLTTSHLRVNLDPIDSPYLITSAHFIGCHQDQFIDKYQIVDKLKNDGIFL LNTPYNKDEIWHRLPKEVQVQLIKKRAHFYIINAAKIARECNLGARINTVMQAAFF HLSDIFKNDFSISQLKEVIAKSYSSKGQELVENNWKALDLAITSLEQIPLNCVDQSS PSMPPIVPNNAPDFVKTVTATMLAGLGDSLPVSAFPPDGAWPTGTTKWEKRNIAE EIPWKSELCTQCNHCAVACPHAAIRAKVVEPDAMLNAPDTLESLEVKARDMKGQ RYVLQVAPEDCTGCNLCVEVCPSRDRNNFDIKAINMQPRIDNLDTQRVNEEFFSAL PDRDIKSLDRIDIRTSQLITPLFEYSGACAGCGETPYIKLLTQLYGDHLAIANATGCS SIYGGNLPSTPYTTDRSGRGPAWANSLFEDNAEFALGYRITYNQHRKRALRLLDH LAGEISPEIVITLQSSDATIAEKRTQVDLLREQLKHIDSAEAKELLEDTNYLIDKSVW AIGGDGWAYDIGFGGLDHVMSLTDNVNILVLDTQCYSNTGGQQSKATPMGAVSK FADLGKHKARKDLGVSIMMYGHVYVAQVALGSQLNQTLKALQEAEAYDGPSLVI AYSPCEEHGYDLAKSHEQMKDLVKSGFWPLYRYDPRRSAEGKPGLVLDSKSPNS EALSSILLKEQRFRRLETLEPTVANILHERSTKMVESKYRFLQMLSSYSDIETPPDS SEQ ID NO: 36 (Nostoc sp., Ns.fpr) MSNQGAFDGAANVESGSRVFVYEVVGMRQNEETDQTNYPIRKSGSVFIRVPYNR MNQEMQRITRLGGKIVTIQTVSALQQLNGRTTIATVTDASSEIAKSEGNGKATPVK TDSGAKAFAKPPAEEQLKKKDNKGNTMTQAKAKHADVPVNLYRPNAPFIGKVIS NEPLVKEGGIGIVQHIKFDLTGGNLKYIEGQSIGIIPPGVDKNGKPEKLRLYSIASTR HGDDVDDKTISLCVRQLEYKHPESGETVYGVCSTYLTHIEPGSEVKITGPVGKEML LPDDPEANVIMLATGTGIAPMRTYLWRMFKDAERAANPEYQFKGFSWLVFGVPT TPNILYKEELEEIQQKYPDNFRLTYAISREQKNPQGGRMYIQDRVAEHADELWQLI KNQKTHTYICGLRGMEEGIDAALSAAAAKEGVTWSDYQKDLKKAGRWHVETY SEQ ID NO: 37 (Synechococcus sp., Sco.fpr) MYGITSTANSTGNQSYANRLFIYEVVGLGGDGRNENSLVRKSGTTFITVPYARMN QEMQRITKLGGKIVSIRPAEDAAQIVSEGQSSAQASAQSPMASSTKIVHPKTTDTSV PVNIYRPKTPFLGKCIENYELVDEGGSGTVRHVTFDISEGDLRYLEGQSIGIIPPGED KNGKPHKLRLYSIASTRHGDMEDNKTVSLCVRQLEYQDPESGETVYGVCSTYLCN LPVGTDDVKITGPVGKEMLLPDDEDATVVMLATGTGIAPFRAFLWRMFKEQHED YKFKGKAWLIFGVPYTANILYKDDFEKMAAENPDNFRLTYAISREQKTADGGKV YVQSRVSEYADELFEMIQKPNTHVYMCGLKGMQPPIDETFTAEAEKRGLNWEEM RRSMKKEHRWHVEVY SEQ ID NO: 38 (E. coli, Ec.fpr) MADWVTGKVTKVQNWTDALFSLTVHAPVLPFTAGQFTKLGLEIDGERVQRAYSY VNSPDNPDLEFYLVTVPDGKLSPRLAALKPGDEVQVVSEAAGFFVLDEVPHCETL WMLATGTAIGPYLSILQLGKDLDRFKNLVLVHAARYAADLSYLPLMQELEKRYE GKLRIQTVVSRETAAGSLTGRIPALIESGELESTIGLPMNKETSHVMLCGNPQMVR DTQQLLKETRQMTKHLRRPGHMTAEHYW 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A bacterial strain having one or more genetic modifications that increase production of products from isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) precursors; the bacterial strain producing isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP) through an methylerythritol phosphate pathway (MEP pathway), and the MEP pathway comprising one or more overexpressed genes; the strain converting the IPP and DMAPP to a terpene or terpenoid product through a downstream synthesis pathway; wherein said genetic modifications comprise: (a) recombinant or modified IspG and IspH enzymes, the IspG and IspH enzymes having balanced expression or activity to prevent accumulation of (1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2(E)-butenyl 4-diphosphate (HMBPP) intermediate, (b) a recombinant or modified gene encoding an enzyme that enhances supply and/or transfer of electrons through the MEP pathway and/or to terpene or terpenoid products, and (c) an inactivation or deletion, or reduced expression or activity, of aceE or aceE enzyme complex.
 2. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the bacterial strain is a bacteria selected from Escherichia spp., Bacillus spp., Corynebacterium spp., Rhodobacter spp., Zymomonas spp., Vibrio spp., and Pseudomonas spp.
 3. The bacterial strain of claim 2, wherein the bacterial strain is a species selected from Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtillus, Corynebacterium glutamicum, Rhodobacter capsulatus, Rhodobacter sphaeroides, Zymomonas mobilis, Vibrio natriegens, or Pseudomonas putida.
 4. The bacterial strain of claim 3, wherein the bacterial strain is E. coli.
 5. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the bacterial strain expresses dxs, ispD, ispF, and idi as recombinant genes.
 6. The bacterial strain of claim 5, wherein the bacterial strain expresses dxs, dxr, ispD, ispE, ispF, and idi as recombinant genes.
 7. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein HMBPP does not accumulate at greater than 10 mg/g of dry cell weight.
 8. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the expression of recombinant IspH is higher than the expression of the recombinant IspG.
 9. The bacterial strain of claim 8, wherein the recombinant ispH and ispG are expressed as an operon, with ispH positioned before ispG in the operon.
 10. The bacterial strain of claim 9, wherein the operon is expressed under control of a strong promoter.
 11. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the expression or activity of a recombinant idi gene is tuned to increase terpene or terpenoid production by modifying the promoter strength, gene copy number, position in an operon, or ribosome binding site.
 12. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the bacterial strain contains an overexpression of an oxidoreductase.
 13. The bacterial strain of claim 12, wherein the oxidoreductase is a pyruvate:flavodoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR).
 14. The bacterial strain of claim 13, wherein the PFOR is YdbK.
 15. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the strain comprises one or more P450 enzymes for the production of a terpenoid compound.
 16. The bacterial strain of 15, further comprising an overexpression of one or more of a flavodoxin, flavodoxin reductase, ferredoxin, and ferredoxin reductase.
 17. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the bacterial strain expresses recombinant pgpB and/or nudB and the expression of the recombinant pgpB and/or nudB is tuned to provide higher terpene or terpenoid product titer by varying the promoter strength, gene copy number, position in an operon, and/or ribosome binding site.
 18. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the strain has one or more additional modifications selected from: recombinant expression of a glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (GAPOR); overexpression of ydhV and/or ydhY; downregulation, inactivation, or deletion of gshA; and recombinant expression of CHAC1 and/or CHAC2.
 19. The bacterial strain of claim 18, wherein the recombinant pgpB and/or nudB is expressed under control of a weak or intermediate strength promoter.
 20. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the bacterial strain has reduced or eliminated pyruvate dehydrogenase(PDH)-mediated conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA.
 21. The bacterial strain of claim 20, wherein the bacterial strain expresses a mutant aceE.
 22. The bacterial strain of claim 21, wherein the bacterial strain has a deletion or inactivation of aceE.
 23. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the bacterial strain overexpresses one or more non-native ferrodoxin (fdx) and/or flavodoxin (f1dA) homolog.
 24. The bacterial strain of claim 23, wherein the non-native fdx homolog is selected from Hm.fdx1 (Heliobacterium modesticaldum), Pa.fdx (Pseudomonas aeruginosa), Cv.fdx (Allochromatium vinosum), Ca.fdx (Clostridium acetobutylicum), Cp.fdx (Clostridium pasteurianum), and Ev2.fdx (Ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii), Pp1.fdx (Pseudomonas putida) and Pp2.fdx (Pseudomonas putida), or derivative of any of the foregoing.
 25. The bacterial strain of claim 24, wherein the fldA homolog is selected from Ac.fldA2 (Azotobacter chroococcum), Av.fldA2 (Azotobacter vinelandii), and Bs.fldA (B. subtilis), or a derivative thereof.
 26. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the terpene or terpenoid product comprises at least one compound selected from: Farnesene, Amorphadiene, Artemisinic acid, Artemisinin, Bisabolol, Bisabolene, alpha-Sinensal, beta-Thujone, Camphor, Carveol, Carvone, Cineole, Citral, Citronellal, Cubebol, Geraniol, Limonene, Menthol, Menthone, Myrcene, Nootkatone, Nootkatol, Patchouli, Piperitone, Rose oxide, Sabinene, Steviol, Steviol glycoside (including Rebaudioside D or Rebaudioside M), Taxadiene, Thymol, and Valencene.
 27. The bacterial strain of claim 1, wherein the bacterial strain overexpresses one or more of geranyl diphosphate synthase (GPPS), farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS), and geranylgeranyl diphosphate synthase (GGPPS). 